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T-26

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T-26

T-26 mod. 1933 at the museum "Breaching of the Blockade of the Leningrad" near Kirovsk, Leningrad Oblast. This tank was raised from a river bottom at Nevsky Pyatachok in May 2003.
Type Light Infantry tank
Place of origin  Soviet Union
Service history
In service 1931–45, –1953 in Spain, -1961 in Finland
Used by Soviet Union, Spain, Finland, ROC, Turkey, Nazi Germany, Romania, Hungary, Afghanistan
Wars Spanish Civil War, Second Sino-Japanese War, Soviet–Japanese Border Wars, Soviet invasion of Poland, Winter War, Great Patriotic War, Soviet-Japanese War 1945, Chinese Civil War
Production history
Designer Vickers-Armstrongs, OKMO in Leningrad
Designed 1928-1931
Manufacturer Factory No. 174 named for K.E. Voroshilov in Leningrad, Stalingrad Tractor Factory
Produced 1931–41
Number built 10,300 tanks and 1,701 other vehicles[1]
Specifications (T-26 mod. 1933[2])
Weight 9.6 tonnes (10.6 short tons)
Length 4.65 m (15.3 ft)
Width 2.44 m (8.0 ft)
Height 2.24 m (7.3 ft)
Crew 3 (commander, gunner, driver)
Armour 6 mm (0.24 in) bottom, 6–10 mm (0.24–0.39 in) roof, 15 mm (0.59 in) hull (front, rear, sides) and turret
Primary
armament		 45 mm 20K mod. 1932/34 tank gun (122 rds.)
Secondary
armament		 7.62 mm DT tank machine gun (2,961 rds.)
Engine 4-cylinder gasoline inline horizontal air-cooled T-26 (Armstrong Siddeley type); engine volume 6,600 cc
90 hp (67 kW) at 2,100 rpm
Power/weight 9.38 hp/t
Transmission single-disk main dry clutch, drive shaft, gearbox with five gears, steering clutches, final drives
Suspension leaf quarter-elliptic springs
Ground clearance 380 mm (15 in)
Fuel capacity 290 L (64 imp gal; 77 U.S. gal) [with additional 110-L fuel tank]
Operational
range		 220–240 km (140–150 mi) - high-road; 130–140 km (81–87 mi) - off-road;
Speed 31.1 km/h (19.3 mph) - high-road; 22 km/h (14 mph) - by-road; 16 km/h (9.9 mph) - off-road
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Armoured combat vehicles based on T-26 chassis: T-26 variants

The T-26 was a Soviet light Infantry tank which was used during many conflicts of the 1930s as well as during World War II. It was a development of the British Vickers 6-Ton tank and is widely considered one of the most successful tank designs of the 1930s.[3]

The T-26 was the most numerous tank in the Red Army's armoured force until autumn 1941, and saw a long history in the armies of various nations around the world, including Spain, China and Turkey; captured T-26 light tanks were used by the German, Finnish, Romanian and Hungarian armies. The T-26 was produced in greater numbers than any 1930s tank, with around 12,000 produced.[4]

Experience in the Spanish Civil War, where it was the most widely used tank on either side, influenced the Soviet doctrine of tank warfare in the late 1930s. The T-26 was the most numerous Soviet tank in service[5] during the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. A large number of modifications and experimental vehicles based on the T-26 chassis were developed in the USSR in the 1930s.

Already becoming obsolete by the beginning of World War II, it was nevertheless the most important tank of the Spanish Civil War and played a significant role during the Battle of Lake Khasan in 1938 and the Winter War. The T-26 was reliable and simple to maintain, and was continuously modernized between 1931 and 1941. No new models were developed after 1940.

Contents

[edit] Design

T-26 mod. 1931 with welded turrets. Military Academy of Mechanization and Motorization of the RKKA, 1940.

The T-26 was designed to replace the obsolescent T-18, also called MS-1. The T-18 was an improved derivative of the French FT-17.

In 1929, Soviet military officials travelled to Western Europe to choose a new tank model for indigenous production and upgrading.[6] Originally, the Soviet Experimental Design Department attempted to produce two "pirated" prototypes of the Vickers Six-Ton—the T-19 and T-20[7]— but neither prototype fulfilled the role required by the Red Army. Eventually the Soviets opted to simply purchase the production license.[8] Following acquisition of the production license, production of the T-26, a copy of the Vickers Six-Ton model A, began in 1931.[9]

The Soviets did not simply replicate the Vickers Six-Ton.[10] Like its British counterpart, the T-26 Model 1931 had a twin-turret configuration and was designed to carry two machine guns — one in each turret. The major difference between the Soviet T-26 and the British Six-Ton was the rectangular firing ports for Degtyarev machine guns, as opposed to the round ports used by the original design.[11]

After problems experienced with precipitation and snow getting into the engine compartment, a special bonnet was installed after March 1932, and was later made integral with the design of the air intake unit. The tank was also fitted with a higher turret with an observation slit, while the driver was given a vision port.[11] Around 1,627 T-26 tanks with twin turrets were produced between 1931 and 1933; of these, 450 were armed with the 37 mm PS-1 in one of the turrets.[12]

In 1933 the Soviets unveiled the T-26 Model 1933, with a single cylindrical turret which carried a single 37 mm cannon and a single 7.62 mm machine gun.[13] Ultimately, this 37 mm primary cannon was replaced by the better known 45 mm, which was based on the German Pak 35/36 cannon acquired in 1930.[13] The T-26 could carry up to three secondary DT 7.62 mm machine guns, in coaxial, rear, and antiaircraft mounts. The majority of T-26 built were of the T-26 Model 1933 model. The original purpose of the upgraded firepower was to increase lethal range to defeat dedicated anti-tank teams, as the original machine gun armament was found insufficient.[14]

T-26 tanks accepted from the industry into the Red Army[15][16]
1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 TOTAL
T-26 twin-turreted 100 950 576 1 - - - - - - - 1,627
T-26 single turret - - 616 511 553 447 - - 957 1,018* - 4,102
T-26 single turret (with radio) - - 96 457 735 826 550 716 336 318 - 4,034
T-26 flame-throwing - - 115 430 7 10 - 290 103 265 116 1,336
T-26 engineer (bridge-laying) - - 1 44 20 - - - - - - 65
TT and TU (teletanks) - - - - - - - 55 - - - 55

*Incuding 208 tanks with anti-aircraft machine guns

Interior of T-26 mod. 1933 turret. Left-side ammunition stowage. Note also the side observation device and the porthole for revolver closed with the plug.[17] Parola Tank Museum in Finland.
Interior of T-26 mod. 1933 turret, looking forward at the 45 mm 20K tank gun breech. Note the TOP-1 telescopic sight to the left, coaxial DT tank machine gun and PT-K commander panoramic sight to the right.[17] Parola Tank Museum in Finland.
Rear view of T-26 mod. 1933 with a welded hull and turret. Note the rear turret hatch for gun removal, the mounting of exhaust muffler, the cover over the air outlet window and louvers of oil cooler. Museum "Breaching of the Blockade of the Leningrad" near Kirovsk, Leningrad Oblast, 2007.
T-26 mod. 1933 with TKhP-3 tank chemical equipment.

The T-26 Model 1933 carried 122 rounds of 45 mm ammunition, firing armour-piercing 45 mm rounds with a muzzle velocity of 820 m/s (2,700 ft/s), or lower-velocity high-explosive munitions.[4] The tank was powered by a T-26 90 horsepower (67 kW) 4-cylinder gasoline air-cooled engine which gave it a top speed of almost 31 km/h (19 mph).

The hull had a maximum armor thickness of 16 mm, which was sufficient to stop artillery HE fragments and light machine gun ammunition, including German 7.92 mm armour-piercing rounds, but would later prove to be too light against newer German anti-tank weapons in 1941. There would be subsequent attempts to thicken the front plate, but ultimately T-26 production would end in favor of newer and superior tank designs, such as the T-34.

Beginning in 1937, there was an effort to equip many tanks with anti-aircraft machine guns, as well as the addition of two searchlights, a new VKU-3 command system and a TPU-3 intercom. Ammunition stowage was also improved, from 122 rounds to 147 for the main gun.[18] In 1938 the cylindrical turret was replaced with a conical shaped turret, with the same 45 mm model 1934 gun.[19]

The TKhP-3 chemical equipment for smoke screening and ground contamination was developed in 1932. This equipment could be easily installed on any T-26 light tank and produced by "Compressor" Factory (as TDP-3 for smoke screening since the summer 1934, 1,503 such sets were produced till the end of 1936).[20]

When compared to the Vickers Six-Ton tank, the T-26 had superior maximum armour protection - 15 mm (0.59 in) as compared to 13 mm (0.51 in). Although the Vickers Six-Ton B would have its armour increased to a maximum of 17 mm (0.67 in), this was not much superior to the 16 mm (0.63 in) of the T-26 Model 1933. Furthermore, the T-26 would later see its armour improved.

Concerning respective armaments, the Soviet 45 mm gun which equipped the majority of the T-26s produced was superior to the low velocity, short-barrelled, 47 mm gun which equipped the Vickers Six-Ton B. However, the Vickers Six-Ton was slightly lighter and slightly faster than the T-26.[21]

Based on experience in the Spanish Civil War, the Red Army planned to replace the T-26 and BT tanks with a new generation of tanks such as the T-34 and T-50. These plans were just beginning to be executed on the eve of Operation Barbarossa. Production of the T-26 was halted; readiness and maintenance standards fell, which put the Red Army at a disadvantage during the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941.

[edit] Spanish Civil War

T-26 mod. 1933 tank in the Spanish Civil War. Note welded hull, road wheels with removable bands and anti-aircraft DT tank machine gun on P-40 ring mounting. These are features of tanks produced after 1936.

The first shipment of T-26s to loyalist forces in Spain was delivered on October 15, 1936, at the Spanish port city of Cartagena. It was one of the first of many shipments to Spain during "Operation X" which became the Soviet Union's primary stream of aid to the Spanish Republic's cause. This first shipment provided 50 new T-26s to Spain under the command of colonel Semyon Krivoshein. This immediately sparked retaliatory German aid to Franco; the first shipment of Panzer Is arrived only weeks later. Both tanks would see their first combat during the Nationalist advance towards Madrid and during the Siege of Madrid proper. The first Soviet T-26 tanks delivered to Cartagena were supposed for Spanish tankmen training, but the front situation became complicated and at least 15 tanks formed a tank company under the command of Soviet captain P. Arman. The company got into action on 29 October, 1936. The tank group of colonel S. Krivoshein (23 T-26 tanks and 9 armoured cars, some crews were Spanish) attacked the Nationalists on 1 November, 1936.

Ultimately, the Soviet Union provided a total of 281 T-26 mod. 1933 tanks, half of which would fall into Nationalist hands by the end of the war and form the base of the Spanish Brunete armoured division, serving until 1953.[22] Additionally, the Soviets would provide 50 BT-5 fast tanks.[23]

T-26 tanks sent to Spain between 1936 and 1939[24]
Date Ship Number of Vehicles Additional Information
  October 15, 1936 Komsomol 50 Led by colonel S.M. Krivoshein
  November 30, 1936 Cabo Palos 37 Led by brigade commander D.G. Pavlov
  November 30, 1936 Mar Caribe 19  
  March 6, 1937 Cabo Santo Tomé 60  
  March 8, 1937 Darro 40  
  May 7, 1937 Cabo Palos 50  
  March 13, 1938 Gravelines 25 Last shipment received


T-26 mod. 1933 of 11th international brigade advancing during the Battle of Belchite. September 1937.

The T-26 was the most widely used tank of the Spanish Civil War in both armies and has been referred to "the tank of the Spanish Civil War" in the title of one of Lucas Molina Franco's articles.[25] Republican armour and infantry suffered from cooperation problems throughout the war, ultimately shaping Stavka's and Stalin's view of the tank in war.[26] The T-26's susceptibility to infantry and to towed antitanks guns made a profound impact on Soviet military thinkers of the time.[27]

"Out-gunned, out-manoeuvred, and hard-pressed, the Spanish had no effective answer to the tank", sparking several interesting developments within the context of tank design and anti-tank tactics.[28] This was especially true regarding the T-26, given that there was no other tank on the field able to knock it out.

Despite the T-26's armament superiority over the German Panzer I and the Italian CV-33 in the Spanish Civil War, the fact that it performed badly within the context of combined-arms operations meant that its days were numbered. Its perceived success fatally influence post-Spanish Civil War Soviet military thinking as it proved ineffectual against anti-tank guns and better-armed tanks.[26]

[edit] Inter-war years

In 1938 the T-26 was upgraded to the Model 1937 version which had its front armour plate thickened to 25 mm (1 in) of steel. This still proved to be insufficient against better anti-tank weapons, and the tank was upgraded one more time. This time it manifested itself as the T-26S and was completed after the T-26 performed ineffectually against Japanese light tanks during the undeclared war between Japan and the Soviet Union in Mongolia. After the Spanish Civil War the T-26 was used in large numbers during the Soviet-Finnish Winter War in 1939. The poorly coordinated initial Soviet offensive ended in large numbers of the tanks utilized being knocked out by Finnish anti-tank weapons and more than 40 captured. Even more T-26 tanks would be captured during the offensive phase of the Continuation War. The Finns also rearmed their Vickers 6-Ton tanks with the Soviet 45 mm gun; these were re-designated as T-26Es and used by the Finnish Army during the Continuation War. Seventy-five T-26s and 19 rebuilt Vickers tanks continued in service after the end of the Second World War.[29] The debacle in Finland persuaded the Soviet Union to reassess the value of armour in an offensive war, but also made public serious weaknesses in the Red Army's armoured divisions which were not corrected until after the large-scale losses of 1941 against invading German armour.[30]

Prior to the Second World War the T-26 saw one last successful encounter against Japanese tanks at Khalkhin Gol, under the command of Soviet General Georgi Zhukov. Zhukov's offensive included 469 light tanks, most of which were T-26s. Infantry during the offensive rode on the hulls of armour and armoured cars various times to reduce the time it took to close with the enemy, which aided in co-operation between armour and infantry.[31] Although the offensive against Japanese forces infiltrating Mongolia was an unexpected success following poor-performance by the Red Army in Poland[32] and major setbacks in Finland,[33] despite the ultimate Soviet victories in both cases, it became apparent that the T-26 was obsolete against newer tanks, including the Japanese Type 97 Chi-Ha, the older Type 89 Chi-Ro and German tanks which were showcased in Poland, such as the Panzer III and Panzer IV.[31] One of the largest faults of the tank was the riveted armour, which was found to be too weak to protect against direct hits. This would be corrected on the T-26S variant which replaced the riveted front plate with a thicker welded plate.[34] The T-26S had an increase in armour thickness from 16 mm to a maximum of 25 mm at 55 degrees on the upper glacis plate. The turret featured an increase to 20 mm at 45 degrees sloping.[35] Unlike the T-26 Model 1933 in Spain, the T-26S used a maximum of two machine guns, one of which was mounted in the rear.[35]

[edit] Second World War

[edit] Soviet invasion of Poland

Soviet T-26 light tanks (mod. 1931 and mod. 1933) on the march in Poland. September 17, 1939.

On the eve of the Second World War the Red Army had around 8.500 T-26 light tanks, which served mainly in separate light tank brigades attached to infantry corps or all-arms armies (each brigade had 256-267 T-26 light tanks in four battalions, including 10-11 flame-throwing tanks) and in separate tank battalions of some infantry divisions (one company of T-26 - 10-15 tanks). Such types of tank units participated in the Soviet invasion of Poland (or as it is called in Russian historiography - "the liberation march" to Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia). On 17 September, 1939 the Polish border was crossed by 878 T-26 tanks of Belorussian Front (22nd, 25th, 29th and 32nd tank brigades) and 797 T-26 tanks of Ukrainian Front (26th, 36th and 38th tank brigades). The losses during the battle actions in Poland were very insignificant, only 15 T-26. But 302 T-26 light tanks came out of action because of different technical failures on the march.[36]

[edit] The Winter War

During the Soviet-Finnish Winter War, the Soviets initially employed 2,514 tanks, a number which increased to 6,541 by the end of the war.[37] Of these, the T-26 was the most common tank.[38] The Finns on the other hand, lacked modern tanks and had only a limited number of Bofors 37 mm AT-guns to defend themselves against such.[39][40]

Heavier Soviet tanks, like the T-28 easily broke through the Finnish defences on the open fields on the Karelian Isthmus, as the Finns lacked effective means of stopping them. However, lighter tanks and supporting infantry were often stopped by determined defences.[41]

Soviet T-26 light tanks (mod. 1939 and mod. 1933), GAZ-M1 car and GAZ-AA trucks of the Soviet 7th Army during its advance on the Karelian Isthmus. December 2, 1939.
Finnish soldiers inspecting an abandoned Soviet T-26 mod. 1933 at Raate. January 1940.

At the Battle of Tolvajärvi, the Finns managed to capture 60 T-26s and other equipment.[42] A further 132 tanks and 12 armoured cars were captured at Lemetti. Given that the encircled unit was an motorized unit, most of the tanks were BT-type tanks and in good condition.[43]

At the battles of Suomussalmi and Raate, the Soviet 163rd and 44th infantry divisions lost all of their armour consisting of 86 tanks.[44] The Finns took more than 69 T-26 tanks and 10 armoured cars, a number equal to the entire pre-war Finnish armoured force. Far more important was the large number of 45 mm anti-tank guns captured during these battles, which enabled the Finns to defend against armoured vehicles more effectively.[45] At Pelkosenniemi and Ilomantsi the Finns would capture a further 10 tanks.[46] Altogether, the Finns captured around 288 tanks and thirty-five armoured cars during the battles; most tanks turned out to be T-26s, BT-5s and BT-7s. 167 captured armoured vehicles were rebuilt for use with Finnish tank units.[47]

In 1939, the Finnish armoured forces consisted of around thirty-two obsolete Renault FT-17 tanks, some Vickers-Carden-Loyd Mk. IVs and Model 33s, which were equipped with machine guns, and 26 Vickers Armstrongs 6-ton tanks. The latter had been re-equipped with 37 mm Bofors AT-guns after the outbreak of the war. Only 13 of these tanks managed to get to the front in time to participate in the battles.[48]

[edit] The German invasion of the Soviet Union

A T-26 mod. 1933 crewmember surrenders to advancing German forces. Army Group Centre, August 1941.
Shot-up Soviet T-26 mod. 1933 light tank and KV-1 heavy tank.

The T-26 formed the backbone of the Red Army's tank force during the first months of the German invasion of the Soviet Union during the Second World War. The Red Army was equipped with 10,268 T-26 tanks of all models on June 1, 1941.[49] This and the lack of coordination between different units of the Red Army influenced a very poor performance of the Red Army against the Germans between June and August 1941. Even in instances where Soviet commanders showed initiative, such as Soviet General Kirponos counterstroke in the southwest, Soviet forces were simply not coordinated enough to stall the German advance, nor were their tanks comparable to the newer generation of German armour, such as the Panzer III and Panzer IV.[50] By the end of fighting along the central axis in August 1941, in preparation for the end of German operations around Kiev and Leningrad, the majority of the Red Army's armour had been destroyed or captured. Although the Germans themselves fielded various obsolete designs, such as the Panzer I and Panzer II, their heavier armour was packed together to provide enough mass to punch through Soviet front lines and exploit any breakthroughs achieved. In instances where Soviet heavy and medium armour was available the German offensive was many times stalled, as in the Soviet counterattack in front of Raseiniai, Lithuania, on June 24, 1941, which was able to overrun an advance reconnaissance detachment of the German 6th Panzer Division, forcing the divergence of the 1st Panzer Division and stalling the offensive for a day.[51] By the end of the year most surviving units of the T-26 had been reverted to other duties, including logistics, and were often used as chassis for new tank surrogates.[49]

T-26 mod. 1938 with conical turret and its crew before battle. Probably 1942.

However, despite the fact that the majority of the Red Army's T-26 tanks had been lost in the first summer months of the war with the Third Reich, T-26 tanks still saw combat around Moscow, Stalingrad, North Caucasus and Leningrad (until at least the beginning of 1944 in the last case). Some amount of T-26 light tanks were used in the Soviet-Japanese War in August 1945.[52]

Many T-26s were captured by the Germans during the offensive. Most of the captured tanks were captured without serious damage, a testament to existent mechanical problems within the tank. Under German usage the T-26 was found to have severe clutch problems, a hot steering apparatus and seized bearings. The T-26, redesignated as the T-26B 738(r.) was used extensively by the German Army. Many T-26s were also used on the Eastern Front during the war by the Germans. Many light tanks were used as tractors to carry Pak guns and artillery guns, and there were also instances where German T-26s were used to support infantry operations as well—these vehicles were renamed the T-26 C740(r).[53]

The Red Army's planned replacement for the T-26 was the T-50, adopted for the Red Army in February 1941. The sophisticated T-50 encountered production problems, however, and this led to the design of the T-60 light tank. [54]

[edit] Soviet invasion of Manchuria (1945)

The Soviet invasion of Manchuria (1945) was the last military operation in which Red Army T-26 tanks were used. There were many old tanks (T-26 and BT-7 mainly) in far eastern separate tank brigades, which had remained on the Manchurian border during the entire Great Patriotic War.

The Red Army had 1,461 T-26 tanks in the far east on August 5, 1945; 1,272 of them were in operable condition.[55] To increase the combat effectiveness of these tank units, 679 new T-34-85 tanks were issued to one battalion of each brigade in summer 1945, leaving the other two battalions with their T-26 or BT tanks as before. For example, the 1st Far Eastern Front had 11 separate tank brigades (80-85 tanks in each, half T-26 or BT) at that time. Such tank units participated in the defeat of the Japanese Kwantung Army in August 1945.[56]

[edit] Outside the Red Army

T-26 mod. 1933 displayed in Parola Tank Museum. This captured tank was used by the Finns during the Continuation War. The vehicle has been restored to drivable condition. Note the construction of driver's hatch.

During the Continuation War, the Finns captured a further 76 T-26 tanks, besides a large number of other types. Of these, 35 were fully repaired and sent to the armoured units, 21 were stored for later refurbishment, while 20 were scrapped. The T-26 remained the main tank of the Finnish Armoured Division throughout the war, although it was started to be replaced by German StuG IIIs from 1943. As noted above, 94 T-26 tanks remained in service with the Finnish Army by 1945. Peak numbers in Finnish service occurred during the summer of 1944, when the Finns kept up to 126 various T-26s, including 22 T-26Es, 2 T-26 m 1931s, 1 OT-26, 63 T-26 m 1933s, 32 T-26 m 1937s and 1939s, and 1 T-26 T. Some of these tanks were kept as training tanks until 1959, when they were finally phased out and replaced by newer British and Soviet tanks (the last Finnish T-26 was retired officially in 1961).[57]

After the end of the Spanish Civil War, Spain received additional T-26 tanks from France which had been taken from retreating Popular forces and interned in French warehouses. In 1942 the Spanish Army had 139 T-26s in service.[58] After the end of the Second World War Spain had at least 116 T-26s in active service, along with 20 Panzer IVs, 93 Panzer Is, 10 StuG IIIs, 60 CV-33s and another 80 assorted machine gun carriers.[59] The T-26s were organized into two battalions of 30 tanks each, along with a single Panzer I command tank, six other Panzer I Ausf. As and a CV-33 for reconnaissance in each battalion. The T-26 were not be replaced until 1953 when Spain and the United States signed an agreement for open shipments of new military matériel to Spain. The first twelve M47 Patton tanks, dedicated to replace the T-26, arrived at Cartagena in February 1954.[60]

Turkey purchased 63 T-26 mod. 1933 (T-26B) light tanks in 1935 (also at least one twin-turreted T-26 mod. 1931 was presented to Turkish government in 1933-1934), along with about 60 BA-6 armoured cars to form the 1st tank battalion of the 2nd Cavalry Division at Lüleburgaz.[61] Armoured Brigade of the Turkish Army in the end of 1937 had 102nd and 103th companies armed with the T-26 mod. 1933 tanks (four platoons in a company, five tanks in platoon), the reserve group of the brigade had 21 T-26 also. In the beginning of 1940 the Turkish Army had an armoured brigade in Istanbul belonged to the 1st Army (9 BA-6 armoured cars, 16 Mk VIB, 48 T-26 mod. 1933 and 98 Renault R35 light tanks) and the 1st tank battalion belonged to the 3rd Army (16 BA-6 armoured cars and 16 T-26 mod. 1933 light tanks). Turkish T-26 tanks were taken out of service in 1942.[62][63]

Probably, 2 twin-turreted T-26 mod. 1931 light tanks were sold to Afghanistan[49][64] in 1935 but this information is not exactly confirmed yet.

Chinese NRA T-26 mod. 1933 tanks at Hunan.

In November 1937, Ji Yang, the official delegate of Chinese government negotiated with Stalin to try for military aid for the War of China's Resistance Against Japan (1937-1945). The Soviet Union sold about 88 T-26 (1933 model) tanks and additional 20 BT-5 or BA-series combat vehicles to China, as the part of totalling some $250 million of credits in munitions and supplies. These tanks and vehicles were shipped to Guangzhou harbour in the Spring of 1938, and used to set up the 200th Infantry Division of the National Revolutionary Army of China. The 200th Infantry Division was actually a mechanized division consisting of four regiments, including the combat vehicle regiment equipped 70 or 80 T-26 tanks, the armoured vehicle regiment equipped with 50 BA-series armoured cars, the motorized infantry regiment equipped with trucks, and the artillery regiment with 122 mm howitzers, 45 mm anti-tank guns, 76 mm field guns. This equipment was manufactured in the Soviet Union. Chinese T-26s were used in the Battle of Lanfeng in 1938, the Battle of Kunlun Pass in 1939, and the Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road in the Burma campaign in 1942.[65] After World War II, the remaining Chinese T-26 tanks equipped the First Armoured Regiment of the Army of the Chinese Kuomingtang government, which saw service in East China during the Chinese Civil War (1946-1950). Finally, several T-26s were destroyed or captured by the People's Liberation Army during the Huaihai Campaign in 1949.[66]

Several tens of captured T-26 of different models were used by the Wehrmacht under the designation Panzerkampfwagen T-26 737(r)/738(r)/740(r) depending of the model. OT-130 light flame-throwing tanks had German designation Flammenwerfer Panzerkampfwagen T-26B 739(r). Only a very small amount of captured T-26 tanks were repaired by German army workshops till the end of 1941, hundreds of Soviet tanks abandoned in 1941 were badly damaged in combats or had technical failures which were impossible to repair because of absence of spair parts, also Germany had a high level of its own tank maintenance. In the end of 1943 ten T-26 were reequipped by the Germans into self-propelled guns (the turrets were removed and ex-French 7,5 cm guns Pak 97/98(f) with shields were installed instead). Those 7,5 cm Pak 97/98(f) auf Pz.740(r) self-propelled guns served in the 3rd company of 563rd anti-tank battalion (3 Kp. Pz.Jg.Abt. 563) but all of them were replaced soon with Marder III on March 1, 1944.[67] Also German police tank companies (Polizei-Panzer-Kompanien) used T-26 tanks (for example, 1 T-26 served in 9 Pol.Pz.Ko of and at least 1 T-26 - in 12 Pol.Pz.Ko).

The Royal Romanian Army had 33 captured T-26 tanks of different models on November 1, 1942. But the Romanians had no possibility to repair the majority of captured Soviet vehicles so not all of them were used in combats (for example, the 1st tank division had only 2 T-26 light tanks in September 1942).[68] The Hungarian Army used a small amount of captured T-26 light tanks also.

Summarize, outside the Soviet Union, the T-26 served with Afghanistan (probably, 2 T-26 mod. 1931 were delivered but the information about existence of Afghan T-26 tanks is not exactly confirmed yet), the Republic of China (82 or 88 T-26 mod. 1933 were delivered from USSR), Finland (38 captured and repaired T-26 of different variants on May 31, 1941; 104 captured and repaired T-26 of different variants on June 1, 1944), Germany, Hungary, Romania (33 captured T-26 on November 1, 1942), Spain (116 T-26 mod. 1933; a total of 281 T-26 mod. 1933 were delivered to Republican Spain from USSR), and Turkey (60 T-26 mod. 1931 and mod. 1933 were delivered from USSR).

[edit] Variants

For armoured combat vehicles (flame-throwing tanks, artillery tractors, radio-controlled tanks, combat engineer vehicles, self-propelled guns, armoured transport vehicles) based on the T-26 chassis see the Main article: T-26 variants.

T-26 mod. 1931 tanks in pre-war Soviet markings. Tank unit of 1st mechanized brigade on tactical exercises. Moscow Military District, 1933.
  • T-26 model 1931 (designated T-26A by German intelligence) — Twin-turret version with machine guns.
  • T-26 model 1932 — Twin-turret version with 37 mm gun in one turret and machine gun in the other. Used as a platoon leader's vehicle.
  • T-26TU — Command version with radios.
  • T-26 model 1933 (T-26B) — Single turret version with 45 mm gun. Most numerous variant.
  • T-26 model 1938 (T-26C) — New semi-conical turret with sloped armour. Welded construction.
  • T-26 model 1939 (T-26S) — Semi-conical turret, increased armour with sloped hull sides and welded construction.
  • T-26A artillery support tank — Mounting enlarged turret with 76.2 mm howitzer Model 27/32. The chassis was overloaded, and few were built.
  • T-26E — During the Interim Peace (1940–41), the Finns re-armed their remaining Vickers 6-Ton tanks with captured Soviet long 45 mm guns and the coaxial machine guns of the T-26s. The new tanks were renamed T-26E. They were used in combat in 1941–44 and remained in service until 1959.

[edit] Preserved T-26

T-26 mod. 1931. Central Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow.
T-26 mod. 1933 with the hand-rail radio antenna. Central Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow.

There are around 40 T-26 light infantry and flame-throwing tanks preserved in different museums and military schools.[69][70]

  • Twin-turreted T-26 mod. 1931 in the Central Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow (Russia) - this tank with shell holes was raised from a river bottom at Nevsky Pyatachok in July 1989 by "Katran" diving club. The vehicle was restored in Pyarnu training tank regiment of the Leningrad Military District, it was donated to the museum in February 1998.
  • Twin-turreted T-26 mod. 1931 in the Verkhnyaya Pyshma Military Museum, Sverdlovsk Oblast (Russia).
  • Twin-turreted T-26 mod. 1931 armed with a 37 mm gun in the Kubinka Tank Museum, Moscow Oblast (Russia).
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Central Armed Forces Museum, Moscow (Russia) - this tank was transfered from Kubinka Tank Museum in 1980s.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Central Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow (Russia) - this tank was found near Volgograd by "Ekipazh" search party in 2004 and restored in Kubinka using the hull bottom from a found Romanian Vickers Six-Ton tank and a turret from a BT-7 light tank (which can be distinguished from the T-26 turret by the construction of revolver porthole); an upper part of the hull, a gun and a chassis are remakes.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Lenino-Snegiri Military Historical Museum in Snegiri, Moscow Oblast (Russia) - this tank was found by "Ekipazh" search party near Myasnoiy Bor (Novgorod Oblast) in April 1989 and restored in Kubinka.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Museum-diorama "Breaching of the Blockade of the Leningrad" in Mar'ino village near Kirovsk, Leningrad Oblast (Russia) - this tank with a large shell hole on the right side was raised from a river bottom at Nevsky Pyatachok in May 2003. The turret was found near the same place later. The tank is displayed in the museum since January 2005.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 on the Victory Prospect in Vyborg, Leningrad Oblast (Russia) - memorial since June 2005. The tank was raised from the Gulf of Finland bottom near Vyborg in March 2005, it sank with its crew in March 1940. Restored by Vyborg Dockyard.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Museum of Northwestern Front in Staraya Russa, Novgorod Oblast (Russia) - this tank was raised from the Lovat River bottom in 1980s and became a monument in Korovitchino village (Novgorod Oblast). The vehicle with strange tracks was given to the museum in May 2004.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Krasnoyarskoe village of Donetsk Oblast (Ukraine) - this tank was found in the private vegetable garden in 2004, the turret was raised at first.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Bovington Tank Museum in Dorset (Great Britain) - this tank was used in the Winter War, damaged and captured by the Finns and used then by the Finnish Army. Later its engine was removed and the tank buried, up to its turret, as part of the fixed defences of the Mannerheim Line. The tank is displayed in the museum in Finnish markings.
T-26 mod. 1933. El Goloso Museum in Madrid, Spain.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the El Goloso Museum in Madrid (Spain) - the tank (Spanish tactical number 135) in Nationalist Spanish markings is armed with Hotchkiss machine gun instead of DT machine gun, the anti-aircraft machine gun and hand-rain radio antenna are dummies.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the El Goloso Museum in Madrid (Spain) - the tank (Spanish tactical number 1311) is displayed in Spanish markings of 1940s-1950s.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the El Goloso Museum in Madrid (Spain) - the tank (Spanish tactical number 210) is displayed in Nationalist Spanish markings.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Academia General Básica de Suboficiales (AGBS, a training school of the Spanish Army) in Talarn (Spain).
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Academia de Infanteria in Toledo (Spain).
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the El Empecinado military base in Cabezón de Pisuerga (Spain) - the tank has a Spanish tactical number 3412.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the General Menacho base in Badajoz (Spain) - the tank has a Spanish tactical number 1314.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Academia General Militar (AGM) in Zaragoza (Spain) - the tank has been restored to drivable condition.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Academia General Militar (AGM) in Zaragoza (Spain).
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Academia General Militar (AGM) in Zaragoza (Spain).
T-26 mod. 1933. Parola Tank Museum, Finland
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Parola Tank Museum, (Finland) - Finnish tactical number Ps 163-33, in drivable condition.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Parola Tank Museum, (Finland) - Finnish tactical number Ps 163-28.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Parola Tank Museum, (Finland) - this tank is described in almost all sources as early version of T-26 mod. 1933. But in reality this is the Finnish war-time modernization (Finnish tactical number Ps 163-6) of a hull from KhT-26 flame-throwing tank (which can be identified by rivets for a burning mixture tank, rivets for hinges of a filling hatch on the left side and a welded drain port on the right side behind a front track bogie) with a mounted turret with a small rear niche from the early BT-5 light tank.[71]
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in the Parola Tank Museum, (Finland) - this tank is a Finnish war-time modernization and rearmament of the KhT-130 flame-throwing tank (Finnish tactical number Ps 164-34). The unarmed vehicle is in museum vault.
  • T-26 mod. 1933 in Kuhmo (Finland) - this tank (Finnish tactical number Ps 163-45) was used by the Finnish armoured forces in the Continuation War 1941 - 1944.
  • T-26 mod. 1939 in the Kubinka Tank Museum, Moscow Oblast (Russia) - this tank is in drivable condition.
  • T-26 mod. 1939 in the military unit in Priozersk, Leningrad Oblast (Russia) - this tank (without a gun and a turret roof) was raised from the lake bottom by "Ladoga" search party in June 1994, under repair.
  • T-26 mod. 1939 in the private collection (Great Britain) - this tank was raised from the Ladoga Lake bottom near Pitkyaranta by St. Petersburg search party in 1998 and sold to private person, not restored.
  • T-26 mod. 1939 in the Parola Tank Museum, (Finland) - this tank was captured during the Winter War.
  • T-26 mod. 1939 in the Parola Tank Museum, (Finland) - this tank is a Finnish war-time modernization (Finnish tactical number Ps 164-7): a hull of the KhT-133 flame-throwing tank with a mounted turret from the T-26 mod. 1939 and a ball mount of the DT tank machine gun in a front plate.
  • T-26 mod. 1939 in the Parola Tank Museum, (Finland) - this tank is a Finnish war-time modernization and rearmament of the KhT-133 flame-throwing tank (Finnish tactical number Ps 164-32).
  • T-26 mod. 1939 in the Hanko Military Museum, Finland - in destroyed condition.
  • T-26 mod. 1939 near Suomussalmi (Finland) at the forest road - this tank is a Finnish war-time modernization and rearmament of the KhT-133 flame-throwing tank. The tank was shot up by Soviet troops in 1944, in destroyed condition.
  • KhT-130 flame-throwing tank in the Kubinka Tank Museum, Moscow Oblast (Russia) - in reality this is a control tank TU-26 with a dummy flame-thrower.
  • KhT-130 flame-throwing tank in the military unit No. 05776 in Borzya, Chita Oblast (Russia) - monument (since 1995) with an incomplete chassis (one track bogie is lacking, tracks and driving wheels were taken from the M3 Stuart American light tank). Before 1990 the vehicle stood in the territory of one of military units of Soviet 39th Army (located in Mongolia) of Transbaikal Military District.

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Kolomiets (2007), p. 125
  2. ^ Kolomiets (2007), p. 124
  3. ^ Franco, El Tanque de la Guerra Civil Española, p. 74
  4. ^ a b Candil, p. 34
  5. ^ Baryatinskiy, pp. 34-35
  6. ^ Baryatinskiy, p. 20–21
  7. ^ Miller, p. 216
  8. ^ García, p. 319
  9. ^ Franco (2006), p. 74. Baryatinskiy, p. 21 for information on production factories. Production was planned at the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant and later at the new Stalingrad Tractor Factory.
  10. ^ Baryatinskiy, p. 20
  11. ^ a b Baryatinskiy, p. 24
  12. ^ Baryatinskiy, p. 27
  13. ^ a b Franco, p. 74
  14. ^ Baryatinskiy, p. 25
  15. ^ Baryatinskiy, Mikhail (2006). Light Tanks: T-27, T-38, BT, T-26, T-40, T-50, T-60, T-70. Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allen. pp. 96. ISBN 0-7110-3163-0. 
  16. ^ Baryatinskiy (2003), p. 5
  17. ^ a b Kolomiets (2003)a
  18. ^ Baryatinskiy, p. 30–31
  19. ^ Baryatinskiy, p. 31
  20. ^ Baryatinskiy (2003), p. 22
  21. ^ See: Macksey and Batchelor, Tank, p. 56–57 for a comparison between tanks.
  22. ^ García, p. 320. Some Soviet sources state that a total of 297 T-26s were provided to Spain. These sources include at least 15 T-26s which never made it to Spain.
  23. ^ Baryatinskiy, p. 54 For more specific information see: García and Franco, Las Armas de la Guerra Civil Española, p. 321.
  24. ^ García, José María; Lucas Molina Franco (2006) (in Spanish). Las Armas de la Guerra Civil Española. 28002 Madrid: La Esfera de los Libros. pp. 613. ISBN 84-9734-475-8. 
  25. ^ Title of article published in the magazine Historia de la Iberia Vieja. See bibliography.
  26. ^ a b House, p. 68–69
  27. ^ For a brief summary of anti-tank tactics during the Spanish Civil War see: Weeks, Men Against Tanks
  28. ^ Quote is attributed to: Weeks, p. 31
  29. ^ Muikku, Suomalaiset Panssarivaunut 1918–1997, p. 191
  30. ^ See: Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, p. 88–89 for an analysis of the Red Army in Finland. Regarding information on the armoured/mechanized divisions/corps of the Red Army see: House, Towards Combined Arms in Warfare.
  31. ^ a b House, p. 69
  32. ^ Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, p. 87; Glantz mentions that the Red Army 'muddled through the operation' due to logistical, morale and command and control problems. He references M.V. Zakharov in General'nyi shtab v predvoennye gody (The General Staff in the prewar years), p. 163–167.
  33. ^ Woodel, p. 55–56
  34. ^ WWII Vehicles.com. T-26 Light Tank[dead link]
  35. ^ a b Book of Tanks: Russian/Soviet (pdf)
  36. ^ Baryatinskiy (2006, in Russian), p. 86-87
  37. ^ Kantakoski, Punaiset panssarit - Puna-armeijan panssarijoukot 1918–1945, p. 260
  38. ^ Kantakoski, p. 260
  39. ^ Appel, Finland i krig 1939–1940, pp. 85–86
  40. ^ Kantakoski, p. 262
  41. ^ Appel, pp. 119–120
  42. ^ Kantakoski, pp. 271–272 and Jorgensen, Strategy and Tactics: Tank Warfare, p. 39
  43. ^ Kantakoski, pp. 274–277
  44. ^ Hughes-Wilson, Snow and Slaughter at Suomussalmi, pp. 49–50
  45. ^ Kantakoski, pp. 281–283
  46. ^ Kantakoski, p. 286
  47. ^ Muikku, p. 18
  48. ^ Kantakoski, p. 257
  49. ^ a b c Baryatinskiy, p. 35
  50. ^ Glantz and House, p. 54
  51. ^ Raus, p. 34, Zaloga & Grandsen (1981), p. 10–12
  52. ^ Information dealing with combat operations of the T-26 after 1941 is reviewed briefly in Baryatinskiy, p. 35
  53. ^ For information dealing with captured Soviet tanks used by the German Army see: Regenberg, p. 4–10
  54. ^ Baryatinskiy, p. 72–84
  55. ^ Strength of the Soviet Armored Troops on the Far East by August 5, 1945
  56. ^ Baryatinskiy (2003), p. 62
  57. ^ Muikku, p. 191
  58. ^ García, p. 328
  59. ^ García and Franco, "La Brunete", p. 31
  60. ^ Manrique and Franco, La Brunete: Primera Parte, p. 31
  61. ^ Zaloga 1984, p 108
  62. ^ Turkish Armoured Forces (on Russian)
  63. ^ Tanks of Turkey
  64. ^ Kantakoski, p. 88
  65. ^ The Department of Military History Research, Academy of Military Sciences of PLA (2005). History of the War of China's Resistance Against Japan (2 ed.). Beijing, China: Press of Liberation Army. pp. 1237. ISBN 7-5065-4867-4. 
  66. ^ the editing team of this book (1996) (in Chinese). The Battle History of the Third Field Army of People's Liberation Army of China. Beijing, China: Press of Liberation Army. pp. 559. ISBN 7-5065-3170-4. 
  67. ^ Baryatinskiy (2003), p. 62-63
  68. ^ Baryatinskiy (2003), p. 63
  69. ^ Preserved Soviet armoured vehicles of 1930s-1940s
  70. ^ Surviving T-26 Light Tanks
  71. ^ Kolomiets, p. 78-81

[edit] References

[edit] Published sources

  • Appel, Erik et al. (2001) (in Swedish). Finland i krig 1939–1940 - första delen. Espoo, Finland: Schildts förlag Ab. pp. 261. ISBN 951-50-1182-5. 
  • Baryatinskiy, Mikhail (2003) (in Russian). Legkiy tank T-26 (Light Tank T-26). Modelist-Konstruktor. Special Issue No. 2. Moscow: Modelist-Konstruktor. pp. 64. 
  • Baryatinskiy, Mikhail (2006). Light Tanks: T-27, T-38, BT, T-26, T-40, T-50, T-60, T-70. Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allen. pp. 96. ISBN 0-7110-3163-0. 
  • Baryatinskiy, Mikhail (2006) (in Russian). Sovetskie tanki v boyu. Ot T-26 do IS-2 (Soviet tanks in action. From T-26 to IS-2). Moscow: YAUZA, EKSMO. pp. 352. ISBN 5-699-18740-5. 
  • Candil, Antonio J. (1999). "Aid Mission to the Republicans Tested Doctrine and Equipment" in Armor, March 1, 1999. Fort Knox, KY: US Army Armor Center. ISSN 0004-2420.
  • Daley, Dr. John (1999). "Soviet and German Advisors Put Doctrine to the Test" in Armor, May 1, 1999. Fort Knox, KY: US Army Armor Center. ISSN 0004-2420.
  • Franco, Lucas M. (2006). "El Tanque de la Guerra Civil Española" in Historia de la Iberia Vieja (Spanish), No. 13. ISSN 1699-7913.
  • Franco, Lucas Molina (2005) (in Spanish). Panzer I: El inicio de una saga. Madrid, Spain: AF Editores. pp. 64. ISBN 84-96016-52-8. 
  • García, José María; Lucas Molina Franco (2005) (in Spanish). La Brunete. Valladolid: Quiron Ediciones. pp. 80. ISBN 84-96016-28-5. 
  • García, José María; Lucas Molina Franco (2006) (in Spanish). Las Armas de la Guerra Civil Española. 28002 Madrid: La Esfera de los Libros. pp. 613. ISBN 84-9734-475-8. 
  • Glantz, David M. (1998). Stumbling Colossus. Lawrence, Kansas: Kansas Press. pp. 374. ISBN 0-7006-0879-6. 
  • Glantz, David M.; Jonathan M. House (1995). When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler. Lawrence, Kansas: Kansas Press. pp. 414. ISBN 0-7006-0899-0. 
  • House, Jonathan M. (1984). Toward Combined Arms Warfare: A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027-6900: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. pp. 231. 
  • Hughes-Wilson, John (2006). "Snow and Slaughter at Suomussalmi" in Military History, January 1, 2006. ISSN 0889-7328.
  • Jorgensen, Christer; Chris Mann (2001). Strategy and Tactics: Tank Warfare. Osceola, USA: MBI Publishing Company. pp. 176. ISBN 0-7603-1016-5. 
  • Kantakoski, Pekka (1998) (in Finnish). Punaiset panssarit - Puna-armeijan panssarijoukot 1918-1945 (Red tanks - the Red Army's armoured forces 1918-1945). Hämeenlinna: Ilves-Paino Oy. pp. 512. ISBN 951-98057-0-2. 
  • Kolomiets, Maxim; Svirin Mikhail (2003) (in Russian). Legkiy tank T-26. 1931-1941 (The Light Tank T-26. 1931-1941). Frontline Illustration No. 1). Moscow: Strategiya KM. pp. 79. ISBN 5-901266-01-3. 
  • Kolomiets, Maxim; Svirin Mikhail (2003) (in Russian). T-26: mashiny na ego base (T-26: The Vehicles on its Base). Frontline Illustration No. 4). Moscow: Strategiya KM. pp. 80. ISBN 5-901266-01-3. 
  • Kolomiets, Maxim (2007) (in Russian). T-26. Tyazhelaya sud'ba legkogo tanka (T-26. The Heavy Fate of a Light Tank). Moscow: Yauza, Strategiya KM, EKSMO. pp. 128. ISBN 978-5-699-21871-4. 
  • Macksey, Kenneth (1970). Tanks: A History of the Armoured Fighting Vehicle. United States of America: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 160. SBN 684-13651-1. 
  • Miller, David (June 30, 2000). Illustrated Directory of Tanks and Fighting Vehicles: From World War I to the Present Day. Zenith Press. pp. 480. ISBN 0-7603-0892-6. 
  • Muikku, Esa; Jukka Purhonen (1998) (in Finnish/English). Suomalaiset Panssarivaunut 1918–1997 (The Finnish Armoured Vehicles 1918–1997). Jyväskylä: Apali. pp. 208. ISBN 952-5026-09-4. 
  • Raus, Erhard (2002). Peter G. Tsouras. ed. Panzers on the Eastern Front: General Erhard Raus and his Panzer Divisions in Russia, 1941–1945. United States of America: Greenhill Books. pp. 253. ISBN 0-7394-2644-3. 
  • Regenberg, Dr. Werner; Horst Scheibert (1990). Captured Tanks Under the German Flag. United States of America: Schiffer. pp. 49. ISBN 0-88740-201-1. 
  • Solyankin, Alexander; Pavlov Ivan, Pavlov Mikhail, Zheltov Igor (2002) (in Russian). Otechestvennye bronirovannye mashiny. XX vek. Tom 1: 1905-1941 (Native Armoured Vehicles. XX century. Vol. 1: 1905-1941). Moscow: Exprint. pp. 344. ISBN 5-94038-030-1. 
  • Svirin, Mikhail; Kolomiets Mikhail (2000) (in Russian). Legkiy tank T-26 (The Light Tank T-26) ARMADA No. 20. Moscow: Exprint. pp. 58. ISBN 5-94038-003-4. 
  • Weeks, John (1975). Men Against Tanks: A History of Anti-Tank Warfare. New York, United States of America: Mason Charter. pp. 189. 
  • Woodel, Rosemary C. (April 2003). Freezing in hell in Military History, Vol. 20 Issue 1. ISSN 0889-7328
  • Zaloga, Steven J., James Grandsen (1981). Soviet Heavy Tanks. London: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 0-85045-422-0.
  • Zaloga, Steven J., James Grandsen (1984). Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-606-8.
  • Zaloga, Steven J. "Soviet Tank Operations in the Spanish Civil War", in Journal of Slavic Military Studies, vol 12, no 3, September 1999.

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