Oregon Trail

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Oregon Trail
IUCN Category V (Protected Landscape/Seascape)
Location	Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon
Established	1843
Governing body	National Park Service

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Oregon Trail was one of the main overland migration routes on the North American continent, leading from Missouri to the Oregon Territory. The eastern half of the trail was also used by travelers on the California Trail and Mormon Trail which used much of the same trail before turning off to their separate destinations. To meet the needs for water, grass and fuel for campfires the trail followed various rivers and streams across the continent. In addition the network of trails required a minimum of road work to be made passable for wagons. They traveled in wagons, pack trains, on horseback, on foot, by raft and by boat to establish new farms, lives and businesses in the Oregon Territory. This territory was jointly governed by both the United States and Britain during the 19th century.^[1] The five to six month journey spanned over half the continent as the wagon trail proceeded about 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) west through territories and land later to become six U.S. states: Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Idaho, and Oregon. Between 1841 and 1869 the Oregon Trail was used by settlers, ranchers, farmers, miners and business men migrating to the Pacific Northwest of what is now the United States. Once the first transcontinental railroad by the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific was completed in 1869, the use of this trail by long distance travelers diminished as the railroad traffic replaced most need for it. By 1883 the Northern Pacific Railroad had reached Portland, Oregon and most of the reason for the trail disappeared. Roads were built over or near most of the trail as local travelers needed to travel to cities originally established along the Oregon Trail.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Lewis and Clark Expedition 1.2 Astorians 1.3 The North West Co. and Hudson Bay Co. 1.4 Great American Desert 1.5 Fur traders, trappers and Explorers 1.6 Missionaries 1.7 Oregon Country 1.8 Early emigrants 1.9 The Great Migration of 1843 1.10 Mormon emigration 1.11 California gold rush 1.12 Later emigration and uses of the trail 2 Oregon Trail Competitors 3 Routes 3.1 Kansas 3.2 Nebraska 3.3 Wyoming 3.4 Utah 3.5 Idaho 3.6 Oregon 4 Travel equipment 5 Statistics 6 Legacy 6.1 Video games 6.2 TV show 7 See also 8 Further reading 9 References 10 External links

[edit] History

[edit] Lewis and Clark Expedition

Further information: Lewis and Clark Expedition

The first land route across what is now the United States was partially mapped by the Lewis and Clark Expedition between 1804 and 1806. Lewis and Clark believed they had found a practical overland route to the west coast, however the two passes they found going through the Rocky Mountains, Lemhi Pass and Lolo Pass, turned out to be much too difficult for wagons to pass through without considerable road work. On the return trip in 1806 they traveled from the Columbia River to the Snake River to the Clearwater River over Lolo pass again and then overland up the Blackfoot River and crossed the Continental Divide at Lewis and Clark Pass ^[2] and on to the head of the Missouri River. This was ultimately a shorter and faster route then the one they followed west. Unfortunately, this route had the disadvantage of being much too rough for wagons and controlled by the Blackfoot Indians who wanted no trespassers crossing their territory that could trade Iron Age goods or firearms to their enemies^{[citation needed]}. Even though Lewis and Clark had only traveled a narrow portion of the of the upper Missouri river drainage and part of the Columbia river drainage, these were considered the two major rivers draining most of the Rocky Mountains and the expedition confirmed that there was no "easy" route through the northern Rocky Mountains as President Thomas Jefferson had hoped.

[edit] Astorians

Further information: Astor Expedition

In 1810, fur trader and entrepreneur John Jacob Astor of the American Fur Company outfitted an expedition (known popularly as the Astor Expedition or Astorians) under Wilson Price Hunt to find a possible overland supply route and trapping territory for fur trading posts. Fearing attack by the Blackfoot Indians, the overland expedition veered south of the Lewis and Clark's route into what is now Wyoming and in the process passed across Union Pass and into Jackson Hole. From there they went over the Teton Range via Teton Pass and then down to the Snake River in Idaho. Upon arriving at the Snake River, they abandoned their horses, made dugout canoes and attempted to use the river for transport. Unfortunately, after a few days travel they soon discovered that the steep canyons, waterfalls and impassable rapids made travel by river impossible. Too far from their horses to retrieve them, they had to cache most of their goods and walk the rest of the way to the Columbia River where they made new boats and traveled to their newly established Fort Astoria. The expedition demonstrated that much of the route along the Snake River plain and across to the Columbia was passable by pack train or wagons with minimal improvements.^[3]

The Astorians supply ship Tonquin, after leaving supplies and men to establish Fort Astoria in early 1811 left the Columbia River for a trading expedition to Puget Sound Washington. There it was attacked and overwhelmed by Indians before being blown up-- killing all the crew and many Indians. Following the destruction of the supply ship Tonquin, American Fur Company partner Robert Stuart lead a small group of men back east to report to Astor. The group planned to retrace the path followed by the overland expedition up the Columbia and Snake. Fear of Indian attack near Union Pass in Wyoming forced the group further south where they discovered South Pass, a wide and easy pass over the Continental Divide. The party continued east via the Sweetwater River, North Platte River (where they spent the winter of 1812-13) and Platte River to the Missouri River finally arriving in St. Louis, Missouri in the spring of 1813. The route they had used appeared to potentially be a practical wagon route, requiring minimal improvements, scouted from west to east, and Stuart's journals provided a meticulous account of most of the route.^[4] Unfortunately, because of the War of 1812 and the lack of U.S. fur trading posts in the Oregon country most of the route was forgotten for more than 10 years.

[edit] The North West Co. and Hudson Bay Co.

See also: North West Company

See also: Hudson Bay Company

In August 1811, three months after Fort Astor was established, David Thompson (explorer) and his team of British North West company explorers came floating down the Columbia to Fort Astoria. He had just completed an epic journey through much of western Canada and most of the Columbia river drainage system. He was mapping the country for possible fur trading posts. In 1812 the North West company, with pressure from the War of 1812, 'bought' Astor's forts, supplies and furs on the Columbia and Snake River and started establishing more of their own.

By 1821, when armed hostilities broke out with their Hudson Bay rivals, the North West Co. was forced (by the British government) to merge with the Hudson Bay Co. The Hudson Bay Co. had nearly a complete monopoly on trading (and most governing issues) in the Pacific Northwest and indeed most of northern and western Canada was run by the HBC.

From 1812 to 1840 the British, through the North West and Hudson Bay Co., had nearly complete control of the Pacific Northwest and the western half of the Oregon Trail. In theory, the Treaty of Ghent ending the War of 1812 restored the U.S. back to its possessions in Oregon territory and joint governance there. In actuality, the British through the Hudson Bay Co. tried, more or less successfully, to discourage any U.S. trappers and traders from doing any significant trapping or trading in the Pacific Northwest. U.S. Fur trappers, traders, missionaries and then the settlers all worked to break this monopoly. They were eventually successful.

The HBC York Factory Express, establishing another route to the Oregon territory, evolved from an earlier express brigade used by the North West Company between Fort Astoria (renamed Fort George) founded in 1811 by John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company), at the mouth of the Columbia River, to Fort William on Lake Superior. By 1825 Hudson Bay Co. started using two brigades, each setting out from opposite ends of the express route, Fort Vancouver in Washington on the Columbia River and the other from York Factory on Hudson Bay, in spring and passing each other in the middle of the continent. This established a 'quick' (about 100 days for 2600 miles (4200 km)) way to resupply their forts and fur trading centers as well as transmitting messages between Fort Vancouver and York Factory on Hudson Bay.

The Hudson Bay Company built a new much larger Fort Vancouver in 1824 slightly upstream of Fort Astoria (now called Fort George) on the Washington side of the Columbia River (they were hoping the Columbia would be the likely Canada U.S. border). Fort Vancouver would be the main re-supply point for nearly all Oregon trail travelers until U.S. towns could be established. Fort Colville[8] (now Colville, Washington) was established in 1825 on the Columbia river near Kettle Falls as a good site to collect furs and control the upper Columbia river fur trade. Fort Nisqually (1833-1869) was built near the present town of DuPont, Washington and was the first Hudson Bay Co. Fort on Puget sound in what would become the state of Washington. Fort Victoria, erected by Hudson’s Bay Company in 1843, was the headquarters of HBC operations in British Columbia, eventually growing into modern day Victoria, British Columbia, the capital city of British Columbia.

By 1840 The Hudson Bay Co. had three forts: Fort Hall (purchased by HBC from Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth in 1837), Fort Boise and old Fort Walla Walla (also call Fort Nez Perce) on the western end of the Oregon Trail route as well as Fort Vancouver nears its terminus in the Willamette Valley. With minor exceptions they all gave substantial and often desperately needed aid to the early Oregon Trail pioneers.

When the fur trade slowed way down in 1840, due to fashion changes in men's hats, the value of the Pacific Northwest to the British (HBC) was seriously diminished. Canada had very few potential settlers who were willing to move 2500+ miles to the Pacific Northwest, although several hundred ex-trappers, British and American, and their families did start settling in Oregon, Washington and California. They also used most of the York Express route through northern Canada in 1841 when HBC brought roughly 100 settlers from the Red River Settlement (located near the junction of the Assiniboine River and Red River near present Winnipeg, Canada) [9] into the Oregon territory. This attempt at settlement was abandoned when they found most of the families deserting to join the Oregon United States settlers and their promise of free land.

In 1846 the Oregon Treaty was signed with Britain and a new Canadian-U.S. boundary was established at the 49th parallel. This treaty did not give the British the land north of the Columbia river they initially wanted. It did grant Hudson Bay Co. the privilege of using the Columbia River for supplying their fur posts, clear titles to their trading post properties allowing them to be sold later if they wanted, and left the British (really Hudson Bay Co. then) with good anchorages at Vancouver, British Columbia, Victoria, British Columbia etc. on the west coast of America. It gave the United States what it mostly wanted, a 'reasonable' boundary, and a good anchorage on the West Coast in Puget Sound. There was almost no United States settlers in the future state of Washington in 1846; but the United States had already demonstrated it could induce 1000's settlers to go to the Oregon Territory and it would be only a short time before they could/would vastly out numbered the few hundred Hudson Bay Co. Employees and HBC retirees living in Washington.

When overland travel on what would become the Oregon trail by American missionaries and early settlers (initially mostly ex-trappers) started showing up in Oregon around 1824 the Hudson Bay Co. through their factor Dr. John McLoughlin gave very substantial help including employment till they could get established. By 1843 when 700-1000 settlers arrived, the United States settlers greatly out numbered the very few nominally British settlers in Oregon. McLoughlin, despite working for the British based Hudson Bay Co., gave extensive help in the form of loans, medical care, shelter, clothing, food, supplies and seed even to United States emigrants. These new emigrants often arrived in Oregon tired, wore out, nearly penniless, with insufficient food or supplies just as winter was coming on. McLoughlin would later be hailed as the Father of Oregon.

[edit] Great American Desert

Westward expansion did not begin immediately after the Louisiana Purchase, however. Reports from expeditions in 1806 by Lieutenant Zebulon Pike and in 1819 by Major Stephen Long described the Great Plains as "unfit for human habitation" and as "The Great American Desert". These descriptions were mainly based on the relative lack of timber and surface water. The images of sandy wastelands conjured up by terms like "desert" were tempered by the many reports of vast herds of millions of bison that somehow managed to live in this "desert". ^[5] In the 1840s, the Great Plains appeared to be unattractive for settlement and were illegal for homesteading till well after 1846--initially it was set aside by the U.S. government for Indian settlements. The next available land for general settlement, Oregon, appeared to be free for the taking and had fertile lands, disease free climate (yellow fever and malaria were prevalent in much of the Missouri and Mississippi river drainage then) extensive uncut, unclaimed forests, big rivers, and potential seaports and only a few nominally British settlers. All one had to do was show up (a 'mere' 2000 mile, six month journey across half a continent), claim what you could handle and start working and it could be yours. Thousands accepted the challenges and the opportunities.

[edit] Fur traders, trappers and Explorers

The route of the Oregon Trail began to be worked out as early as 1805 by explorers, trappers and fur traders. Fur trappers, often working for fur traders, followed nearly all possible streams looking for beaver in the 25+ years (1812-1840) the fur trade was active. Fur traders like Manuel Lisa, Robert Stuart, William Henry Ashley, Jedidiah Smith, William Sublette, Andrew Henry, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Kit Carson, Jim Bridger, Peter Skene Ogden, David Thompson and hundreds of other mountain men besides discovering and naming many of the rivers and mountains in the Intermountain West and Pacific Northwest wrote often of their travels and were available as guides and consultants when the trail started to become open for general travel. The fur trade business ended just as the Oregon trail business seriously began—1840.

After 1821, the Hudson's Bay Company sent large annual parties from the Snake River Plain country and into Wyoming. The Oregon Trail west of the Rocky Mountains remained nominally in the control of Hudson's Bay Company into the 1840s.^[6]

In fall of 1823, Jedediah Smith and Thomas Fitzpatrick led their trapping crew south from the Yellowstone River to the Sweetwater River in Wyoming. They were looking from a safe location to spend the winter. Smith reasoned since the Sweetwater flowed east it must eventually run into the Missouri River. Trying to transport their extensive fur collection down the Sweetwater, they soon found after a near disastrous canoe crash that it was too swift and rough for water passage. On July 4, 1824 they cached their furs under a dome of rock they named Independence Rock and started their long trek to the Missouri River. Upon arriving back in a settled area they bought pack horses (on credit) and retrieved their furs. They had re-discovered the route that Robert Stuart had taken in 1813—eleven years before. Thomas Fitzpatrick was often hired as a guide when the fur trade started sputtering out starting in 1840.

The trail began to be regularly used by fur traders, missionaries, and a few general travelers starting in 1825. In 1825, the first fur trader rendezvous occurred on the Henry's Fork (Green River) on the Wyoming-Utah border. The supplies were brought in by a large party using pack trains which were then used to haul out the fur bales. They normally used the north side of the Platte river—the same route used by the Mormon Trail. For the next 15 years, this annual event, in different locations, allowed the fur traders to supply the needs of the trappers and their Indian allies without having the expense of building or maintaining a fort. In 1830, William Sublette, a fur trader, brought the first wagons up the Platte, North Platte, and Sweetwater rivers before crossing over South Pass to a fur trade rendezvous on the Green River near future town of Big Piney, Wyoming, thus establishing that the eastern part of most of the Oregon Trail was passable by wagons.

Fur traders tried to use the Platte River, the main route of the eastern Oregon Trail, for transport but soon gave up in frustration as it was too shallow and unpredictable to be of use. The Platte was "too thick to drink and too thin to plow" and too shallow to float a canoe very long.

There were several U.S. government sponsored explorers who explored part of the Oregon Trail and wrote extensively about their explorations. Captain Benjamin Bonneville on his expedition of 1832 explored much of the Oregon trail, and brought wagons up the Platte, North Platte, Sweetwater route across South Pass to the Green River in Wyoming. In addition he explored most of the Idaho and Oregon trail to the Columbia. He had the account of his explorations in the west written up by Washington Irving in 1838. (See: "The Adventures of Captain Bonneville" ^[7]). John C. Fremont, and his guide Kit Carson led three expeditions from 1842 to 1846 on parts of the Oregon Trail. His explorations were written up by him and his wife Jessie Benton Fremont and were widely published. Most of these explorations were over routes that were already known by a few mountain men; but their exploration and write ups made the routes much more widely known.

[edit] Missionaries

In 1834 the Dalles Methodist Mission, was founded by the Reverend Jason Lee just east of Mount Hood on the Columbia River. In 1836, Henry H. Spalding and Marcus Whitman traveled west to establish the Whitman Mission near modern day Walla Walla, Washington.^[8] The party included the wives of the two men, Narcissa Whitman and Eliza Hart Spalding, who became the first European-American women to cross the Rocky Mountains. En route, the party accompanied American fur traders going to the 1836 rendezvous on the Green River in Wyoming and then joined Hudson Bay fur traders traveling west across Idaho and Oregon to Fort Walla Walla (in Washington). The group was the first to travel in wagons all the way to Fort Hall, Idaho where they were abandoned at the urging of their guides. They used pack animals for the rest of the trip to Fort Walla Walla and then floated by boat to Fort Vancouver. Other missionaries, mostly husband and wife teams, followed by wagon and pack train and established missions in the Willamette Valley, as well as various locations in Washington, Oregon and Idaho.

[edit] Oregon Country

Further information: Oregon Country

Following the War of 1812, Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of 1818 which settled border disputes and allowed for joint occupation and settlement of the Oregon country. This opened the territory to American fur traders and settlers, though it would result in a struggle between the two countries for total control of the region. In 1846, the Oregon Treaty established the Canadian - U.S. border on the 49th parallel, giving complete control of the southern Oregon country to the United States. In 1848 Congress formally defined the Oregon Territory which included the future states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, as well as parts of Wyoming and Montana west of the Continental Divide.

In 1843, settlers of the Willamette Valley drafted the Organic Laws of Oregon organizing land claims for the region. Married couples were granted at no cost up to 240 acres (2.6 km²), and unmarried settlers could claim 320 acres (1.3 km²). As the group was a provisional government with no authority, these claims were not valid under United States or British law, but they were eventually honored by the United States in the Donation Land Act in 1850. The Donation Land Act provided for married settlers to be granted 320 acres (1.3 km²) and unmarried settlers 160 acres (0.65 km²). Following the expiration of the act in 1854. the land was no longer free, but $1.25 an acre ($3.09/hectare) with a limit of 320 acres (1.3 km²).

[edit] Early emigrants

On May 1, 1839 a group of eighteen men from Peoria, Illinois set out with the intention to colonize the Oregon country on behalf of the United States of America and drive out the Hudson Bay Company operating there. The men of the Peoria Party were among the first pioneers to traverse most of the Oregon Trail. The men were initially led by Thomas J. Farnham and called themselves the Oregon Dragoons. They carried a large flag emblazoned with their motto "OREGON OR THE GRAVE". Although the group split up near Bents Fort on the South Platte and Farnham was deposed as a leader, nine of their members eventually did reach Oregon.^[9]

In 1841 the Bartleson-Bidwell Party was the first emigrant group credited with using the Oregon Trail to emigrate west. The group set out for California, but about half the party left the original group at Soda Springs, Idaho and proceeded to the Willamette Valley in Oregon.

On May 16, 1842 the second organized wagon train set out from Elm Grove, Missouri with more than 100 pioneers.^[10] The party was led by Elijah White. The group broke up after passing Fort Hall with most of the single men hurrying ahead and the families following later. Despite company policy to discourage U.S. emigration, John McLoughlin, Factor of the Hudson's Bay Company at Fort Vancouver, offered the American settlers food and farming equipment on credit^{[citations needed]}.

[edit] The Great Migration of 1843

In what was dubbed "The Great Migration of 1843" or the "Wagon Train of 1843",^[11][12] an estimated 700 to 1000 emigrants left for Oregon. They were led initially by John Gantt, a former US Army Captain and fur trader who was contracted to guide the train to Fort Hall for $1 per person. The winter before, Marcus Whitman had made a mid-winter trip from Oregon to St. Louis to appeal a decision by his Mission backers to abandon several of the Oregon missions. He joined the wagon train at the Platte River for the return trip. When the pioneers were told at Fort Hall by agents from the Hudson Bay Company that they should abandon their wagons there and use pack animals the rest of the way, Whitman disagreed and volunteered to lead the wagons the rest of the way to Oregon. He believed the trains were large enough they could build whatever road improvements they needed to make the trip with their wagons The biggest obstacle they faced was in the Blue Mountains of Oregon where they had to clear a trail through heavy timber. Nearly all of the settlers in the 1843 wagon trains arrived in the Willamette Valley by early October. A passable wagon trail now existed from the Missouri River to The Dalles, Oregon. In 1846, the Barlow Road was completed around Mount Hood providing a completely passable wagon trail from the Missouri river to the Williamette Valley.

[edit] Mormon emigration

Further information: Mormon Trail

Following persecution and mob action in Missouri, Illinois and other states, and the martyrdom of their prophet Joseph Smith in 1845 Mormon leader Brigham Young was chosen by the leaders of the Latter Day Saints (LDS) church to lead the LDS settlers west. He chose to lead his people to the Salt Lake Valley in present day Utah. In 1847 Young lead a small especially picked fast moving group of men and women from their Winter Quarters encampments near Omaha, Nebraska and their approximately 50+ temporary settlements on the Missouri River in Iowa including Council Bluffs Iowa (then called Kanesville). ^[13] The initial pioneering groups responsibility was to plant crops and start homes for the many 1000s expected to follow. About 2,000 LDS pioneers total went that first year as they filtered in from Mississippi, Colorado California and several other states. The initial pioneers were charged with establishing farms, growing crops, building herds and preliminary settlements to feed and support the many 1000s of immigrants expected in the coming years. The Mormons followed the northern bank of the Platte River in Nebraska to Fort Laramie in present day Wyoming. In Wyoming they followed the main Oregon/California/Mormon Trail through Wyoming to Fort Bridger, where they split from the main trail and followed and improved the crude path established by the ill-fated Donner-Reed party of 1846 into Utah and the Salt Lake Valley. Between 1847 and 1860 over 43,000 LDS settlers and 10,000s travelers on the California Trail and Oregon trail followed Young to Utah. After 1848, the California or Oregon bound then went back to the main California or Oregon trail over the Salt Lake Cutoff rejoining the trail near the future Idaho-Utah border at the City of Rocks Idaho. To save money and enable many poor Mormons to get to Utah starting in 1855 many of the travelers made the trek with hand built handcarts and many fewer wagons. Handcarts were as fast as oxen pulled wagons and allowed the handcart pioneers to bring their 100 to 75 pounds allotment of possessions plus some food, bedding and tents to Utah. Accompanying wagons carried most of the additional food and supplies needed.

Along the way, the Mormon leaders established a number of ferries and trail improvements to help later travelers and earn much needed money. One of the better known was the Mormon Ferry near the future site of Fort Caspar in Wyoming which operated between 1848 and 1852 and the Green River ferry near Fort Bridger which operated from 1847 to 1856. The ferries were free for Mormon settlers while all others were charged a toll of from $3.00 to $8.00--just as all other ferries did.

[edit] California gold rush

In 1848, gold was discovered in California precipitating the California Gold Rush. Over the next decade, gold seekers rushing overland dramatically increased traffic on the Oregon and California Trails. The "forty-niners" often chose speed over safety and opted to use shortcuts such as the Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff in Wyoming which reduced travel time by almost 10 days but spanned nearly 45 miles (72 km) without water or timber.^[14]

[edit] Later emigration and uses of the trail

Overall it is estimated that over 400,000 pioneers used the Oregon Trail and its two primary off-shoots, the California and Mormon Trails. The trail was still in use during the Civil War, but traffic declined in 1855 when the Panama Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama was completed. Steamships then provided rapid transport from Panama to ports in California and Oregon.

A number of cutoffs and improvements were made over the years. In 1848 the Salt Lake Cutoff was established which allowed California or Oregon bound travelers to stop in Salt Lake City, Utah for supplies and fresh animals. It rejoined the main trail at City of Rocks Idaho. In 1850 Childs Cutoff was established following the North bank of the North Platte River and bypassing Fort Laramie till they reached the Red Buttes area. ^[15] In 1852 the Seminoe Cutoff left the main road just east of the sixth crossing of the Sweetwater River and remained south of the Sweetwater to avoid four more river crossings and Rocky Ridge. ^[16] In 1857, the U.S. government dispatched Frederick W. Lander to scout and hire a crew to build a new road through Star Valley,Wyoming ^[17] and back to the main trail at Soda Springs, Idaho. The Lander Road, starting near South Pass and going about four mile north of present day Big Piney, Wyoming then traveling up South Piney Creek and over the Salt River Mountains to Star Valley was completed in 1859. In theory it eliminated seven days from the total trip for those going via Fort Bridger. It provided ample water, grass and firewood for travelers over an often steep and rough road. In practice the Sublette Cutoff (est. 1846) also cutoff about 70 miles and also by passed Fort Bridger by crossing 45 miles of waterless desert. It started about 20 miles further down the trail than the Landers cutoff and was found to be just about as fast, if drier. Diary entrees often mention wagon trains meeting again in Soda Springs that had gone over both cutoffs. The Goodale Cutoff of 230 miles was established in 1862 to avoid Indian conflicts on the main Oregon Trail in Idaho. It started at Fort Hall and went northwest across the Snake River plains through many lava fields, including the present day Craters of the Moon National Monument and the Camas Prairie before rejoining the main road in the vicinity of old Fort Boise. ^[18]

Over the years many ferries were established to help get across the many rivers on the path of the Oregon Trail. Multiple ferries were established on the: Missouri River, Kansas River, Little Blue River, Elkhorn River Loup River, Platte River, South Platte River, North Platte River, Laramie River, Green River, Bear River, two crossings of the Snake River, John Day River, Deschutes River, Columbia River as well as many other smaller streams. During peak immigration periods several ferries on any given river often competed for pioneer dollars. One way to cut costs was to buy or build your own ferry and sell it to following immigrants for what it cost you etc.. Depending upon where the pioneers started and which variation of the main trail they used these many ferries significantly increased speed and safety for Oregon Trail travelers. They increased the cost of traveling the trail by roughly $30.00 per wagon but increased the speed of the transit from about 170 days in 1843 to 120 days in 1860. The many drowning deaths also went significantly down as dangerous and difficult crossings were made much safer.

As the years passed the Oregon Trail became a well known corridor from the Missouri River to the Columbia river. Offshoots of the trail also continued to grow as gold and silver discoveries, farming, ranching opportunities etc. in Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Wyoming, Utah, Montana, Washington, etc. resulted in much more traffic to many areas. Traffic became more two directional as increasingly traffic went both ways. The First Transcontinental Telegraph followed much of path of the eastern half of the Oregon trail as it was completed in October 1861 in Salt Lake City Utah. Stage stations were built along parts of the trail after 1860 and soon stage coaches were traveling much of the trail. By 1870 the population in the several states served by the Oregon trail increased by about 350,000 over its 1860 census levels. With the exception of most of the 180,000 increase in California most of these people living away from the coast traveled over parts of the Oregon trail and its many extensions and cutoffs to get to their new residents.

The Oregon/California/Mormon trail were also used to drive herds of thousands of horses, sheep, cattle and goats to many locations along the Trail. According to studies by John Unruh the livestock may have been as plentiful or more plentiful than the immigrants in many years. ^[19]. In 1852 there was even records of a 1,500 turkey drive from Illinois (cost 0.50 ea) to California (sold at $8.00 ea). ^[20] The main reason for this livestock traffic was the large cost discrepancy between livestock in the mid-west and at the end of the trail in California or Oregon. They could often be bought in the mid-west for about 1/3 to 1/10th what they would fetch at the end of the trail. Large losses could be absorbed and the drovers would still make significant profit. As the emigrant travel on the trail declined significant herds of livestock still used large segments of it to get to or from markets.

The First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869 providing faster and safer travel east and west, but some emigrants continued to use the trail well into the 1890s and modern highways eventually paralleled large portions of the trail, including U.S. Highway 26, Interstate 84 in Oregon and Idaho and Interstate 80 through much of Wyoming and Nebraska parallels or follows much of the original trail. Contemporary interest in the overland trek has prompted the states and federal government to preserve landmarks on the trail including wagon ruts, buildings and "registers" where emigrants carved their names. Throughout the 20th century there have been a number of re-enactments of the trek with participants wearing period garments and traveling by wagon.

[edit] Oregon Trail Competitors

There were other possible migration paths for early settlers to California or Oregon besides the Oregon trail prior to the establishment of the transcontinental railroads.

The longest trip was the approximately 13,600 mile trip on a uncomfortable sailing ship rounding the treacherous, cold and dangerous Cape Horn of South America and then sailing on to California or Oregon. This trip typically took four to seven months (120 to 210 days) and cost about $350 dollars.

Other routes involved taking a ship to Colon, Panama (then called Aspinwall) and a strenuous, disease ridden, five to seven day trip by canoe and mule over the Isthmus of Panama before catching a ship from Panama City, Panama to Oregon or California. This trip could be done from the east coast theoretically in less that two months if all ship connections were made without waits and typically cost about $450/person. Catching a fatal disease was a distinct possibility as Ulysses S. Grant in 1852 learned when his unit of about 600 soldiers and some of their dependents traversed the Isthmus and lost about 120 men, women and children. ^[21] This passage was considerably speeded up and made safer in 1855 when the Panama Railroad was completed at terrible cost in money and life across the Isthmus and the treacherous, disease ridden 50 mile trip could be done in less than a day. The time and the cost for transit dropped as regular steamships went from ports on the east coast to Colon, Panama ($80-$100), across the Isthmus of Panama by railroad ($25) and by steamship to ports in California and Oregon ($100-$150).

Another route established by Cornelius Vanderbilt in 1849 was across Nicaragua. The 119 mile long San Juan River to the Atlantic Ocean helps drain the 100 mile long Lake Nicaragua. From the western shore of Lake Nicaragua it is only about 12 miles to the Pacific Ocean. Vanderbilt decided to use steam ships from the U.S. to the San Juan river, small steam launches on the San Juan river, boats across Lake Nicaragua, and a stage coach to the Pacific where connections could be made with another ship headed to California, Oregon, etc.. Vanderbilt, by under cutting fares to the Isthmus of Panama and stealing many of the Panama Railroad workers, managed to attract roughly 30% of the California bound steam boat traffic. All his connections in Nicaragua were never completely worked out before the Panama Railroad's completion in 1855 and their payment to Cornelius Vanderbilt a 'non-compete' payment (bribe) of $56,000/ yr killed the whole project ^[22].

Another possible route consisted of taking a boat to Mexico traversing the country and then catching another boat out of a Acapulco, Mexico to California etc. This route was used by some adventurous travelers but was not too popular because of the difficulties of making connections and the often hostile population along the way.

The Gila Trail going along the Gila River in Arizona, across the Colorado River and then across the Sonora Desert in California was scouted by Stephen Kearny's troops and later by Captain Philip St. George Cooke's Mormon Battalion in 1846. This route was used by many gold hungry miners in 1849 and later but suffered from the disadvantage that you had to find a way across the very wide and very dry Sonora Desert. It was used by many gold hungry miners in 1849 and later as a winter crossing to California, despite its many disadvantages.

Other ways to get to Oregon were: using the York Factory Express route across Canada,and down the Columbia River; ships from Hawaii, San Francisco, California or other ports that stopped in Oregon; emigrants trailing up from California, etc.. All provided a trickle of emigrants, but they were soon overwhelmed in numbers by the emigrants coming over the Oregon Trail.

[edit] Routes

As the trail developed it became marked by numerous cutoffs and shortcuts from Missouri to Oregon. The basic route follows river valleys as grass and water were absolutely necessary.

While the first few parties organized and departed from Elm Grove, the Oregon Trail's primary starting point was Independence, Missouri or Westport, Kansas on the Missouri River. Later, several feeder trails lead across Kansas and some towns became starting points, including: Several towns along the Missouri River after Weston, Missouri, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Atchison, Kansas, St. Joseph, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska.

The Oregon Trail's nominal termination point was Oregon City, at the time the proposed capital of the Oregon Territory. However, many settlers branched off or stopped short of this goal and settled at convenient or promising locations along the trail. Commerce with pioneers going further west greatly assisted these early settlements in getting established and launched local micro-economies critical to these settlements' prosperity.

At dangerous or difficult river crossings, ferrys or toll bridges were set up and "bad" places on the trail were either 'fixed' or by-passed. Several toll roads were constructed. Gradually the trail became easier with the average trip (as recorded in numerous diaries) dropping from about 160 days in 1849 to 140 days 10 years later.

Numerous other trails followed the Oregon Trail for much of its length, including the Mormon Trail from Illinois to Utah, and the California Trail to the gold fields of California. Because it was more a network of trails more than a single trail there were numerous variations with other trails eventually established on both sides of the Platte, North Platte, Snake and Columbia rivers. With literally thousands of people and thousands of livestock traveling in a fairly small time slot the travelers had to spread out to find clean water, wood, good campsites and grass. The dust kicked up by the many travelers was a constant complaint and where the terrain would allow it there may be between 20 to 50 wagons traveling more or less abreast to minimize eating each others dust.

Remnants of the trail in Idaho, Kansas, Oregon, and Wyoming, have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and the entire trail is a designated National Historic Trail (listed as the Oregon National Historic Trail).

[edit] Kansas

Starting initially in Independence/Kansas City in Missouri, the initial trail followed the Santa Fe Trail into Kansas south of the Wakarusa River. After crossing The Hill at Lawrence, it crossed the Kansas River by ferry or boats near Topeka, Kansas, and angled to Nebraska paralleling the Little Blue River until reaching the south side of the Platte River.

[edit] Nebraska

Throughout most of Nebraska the trail traveled along the Great Platte River Road. About 200 miles from the Missouri river the trail passed Fort Kearny (established in 1848 by U.S. Army). The fort was the first chance to buy emergency supplies, do repairs, get medical aid or mail a letter. It followed the wide, slow moving, shallow and muddy Platte ("two miles wide and two inches deep") to the tricky South Platte River crossing near North Platte before continuing along the North Platte River into Wyoming.

Notable landmarks in Nebraska include Courthouse and Jail Rocks, Chimney Rock, and Scotts Bluff.

[edit] Wyoming

Further information: Emigrant Trail in Wyoming

The Oregon, California and Mormon Trail followed the North Platte river out of Nebraska into Wyoming. At the junction of the Laramie River and North Platte river the next major stop was the adobe walled Fort Laramie (an old fur trading fort formerly named Fort John ^[24] and Fort William until it was purchased by the army in 1849 for $4,000). Fort Laramie was the end of most Cholera outbreaks which killed thousands along the lower Platte from 1849 to 1855. In this period 5-10% of all emigrants are thought to have died from cholera on the trail. Spread by cholera germs in fecal contaminated water, cholera caused massive diarrhea leading to massive dehydration (water loss) and death in as few as 12 to 96 hours. In those days its cause and cure was unknown, and it was often (>30%) fatal. It is believed that the swifter flowing rivers in Wyoming helped prevent the germs from spreading. ^[25]

Continuing up the North Platte and crossing many small swift flowing creeks they traversed over to the Sweetwater River which would have to be crossed up to nine times before it left the Sweetwater and crossed over the Continental Divide at South Pass. From South Pass the trail followed Big Sandy creek(s) till it hit the Green River. The trail approximately parallels the Green to the Blacks Fork of the Green and Fort Bridger Wyoming. The trail then crossed the treacherous Green river which was usually at high water in July and August and crossed over to the Bear River valley which was followed till the Bear turned south in Idaho.

The Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff (established 1844) and the Lander Road (established in 1858) bypassed Fort Bridger and provided shorter routes through Wyoming to Idaho.

Numerous landmarks are located along the trail in Wyoming including Independence Rock, Ayres Natural Bridge and Register Cliff.

[edit] Utah

Further information: Mormon Trail

Another route was blazed in 1848, provided a route from Fort Bridger^[26] to Salt Lake City, Utah. Located roughly half way between the start and the end of the Oregon and California trails tens of thousands of emigrants used Salt Lake City as an intermediate stop for more food, supplies, livestock or repairs. The Salt Lake Cutoff, (established in 1848) going north out of Salt Lake City crossed the Weber River and Bear River before it rejoined the Oregon and California Trail in Idaho. The overall distance was approximately the same whether one "detoured" to Salt Lake City or not.

[edit] Idaho

As the Bear River turned south, the trail went almost due west to the Portneuf River valley that lead to the Snake River valley. Fort Hall, an old fur trading post established in 1834, was the next milestone on the Snake. The swift and deep Snake would usually be crossed twice: once to get on the 'easier' north shore of the Snake River Plain and once again to get to the south shore. The trail along the Snake with its lava flows, treacherous access to Snake river canyon for water and the rumble of American Falls, Shoshone Falls, and Twin Falls that could be heard for miles as they were passed would long be remembered. The trail eventually reached the lush Boise River valley before it crossed the Snake again near old Fort Boise, Idaho (another old fur trading post established in 1836).

[edit] Oregon

Once across the Snake river ford near old Fort Boise the weary travelers traveled across what would become the state of Oregon. The trail then went to the Malheur River and then past Farewell Bend on the Snake river, up the Burnt River (Oregon) canyon and northwest to what's now the La Grande, Oregon valley before hitting the Blue Mountains (Oregon). The 1843 settlers cut a wagon road over these mountains making them passable for the first time to wagons. For five years the trail went to the Whitman Mission near old Walla Walla Washington until 1847 when the Whitmans were murdered by Indians. At Fort Walla Walla some built rafts and started down the Columbia others continued west till they hit the Dalles. After 1847 the trail bypassed the closed mission and headed almost due west to present day Pendelton, Oregon crossing the Umatilla River, John Day River, and Deschutes River before arriving at The Dalles, Oregon. Modern Interstate 84 in Oregon roughly follows the original Oregon Trail from Idaho to the Dalles.

Arriving at the Columbia at the Dalles and stopped by the Cascade Mountains and Mount Hood, some gave up their wagons or disassembled them and put them on boats or rafts for a trip down the Columbia River. Transiting the Cascade's Columbia River Gorge with its (then) multiple rapids and treacherous winds they would have to make the 1.6 miles (2.6 km) portage around the famous Cascade Rapids before coming out near the Willamette River where Oregon City, Oregon was located. The pioneers livestock could be driven around Mount Hood on the narrow, crooked and rough Lolo Pass (Oregon) trail. (A clickable tour across Oregon's part of the Oregon Trail is available at the following reference) ^[27]

Several Oregon Trail branches and route variations over time led to the Willamette Valley. Besides boats or rafts down the Columbia River, the most popular was the Barlow Road carved though the forest around Mount Hood from The Dalles in 1846 as a toll road at $5.00 a wagon $0.10/ea. for livestock. It was rough and steep with poor grass but still cheaper and safer than floating goods, wagons and family down the dangerous Columbia River.

In Central Oregon there was the Santiam Wagon Road (established 1861) roughly paralleling Oregon highway 20 to the Willamette valley. The Applegate Trail (established 1846) cutting off the California Trail from the Humboldt River in Nevada crossed part of California before cutting north to the south end of the Willamette valley. U.S. Route 99 through Oregon (now Oregon Route 99) and Interstate 5 through Oregon roughly follow the original Applegate trail's route.

[edit] Travel equipment

The Oregon Trail was too long and arduous for the standard Conestoga wagons commonly used at that time in the Eastern United States and on the Santa Fe Trail. The 6,000 pounds (2,700 kg) capacity was larger than needed and the large teams the wagons required could not navigate tight corners on the Oregon trail.

This led to the rapid development of prairie schooners. This wagon was approximately half the size of the larger wagon, weighed about 1,300 pounds (590 kg) empty with about 2,500 pounds (1,100 kg) of capacity and about 88 square feet (8.2 m²) of storage space in a 11 feet (3.4 m) long, 4 feet (1.2 m) wide, by 2 feet (0.61 m) high box. The wagons were manufactured in quantity by companies like Studebaker at a "reasonable" price, with new wagons costing between $85.00 and $170.00. The canvas covers of the wagons were doubled and treated with linseed oil to help keep out the rain, dust and wind, though the covers eventually tended to leak anyway. The typical wagon with 40 to 50 inch (1.0-1.3 m) diameter wheels could easily move over rough ground and rocks without high centering and even over most tree stumps if required. In practice it was found that the "standard" farm wagon built by a company or wagon maker (wainwright) of good reputation usually worked just as well as prairie schooners and had only to be fitted with bows and a canvas cover to be ready. Wagons were generally reliable if maintained, but sometimes broke down and had to be repaired or abandoned along the way. Wagons were considered desirable since one wagon could carry enough food for six months travel for four or five as well as a short list of 'luxury items' and you didn't have to reload it on cantankerous mules or oxen every morning,

The recommended amount of food to take for per adult was 150 pounds (70 kg) of flour, 20 pounds (9 kg) of corn meal, 50 pounds (25 kg) of bacon, 40 pounds (20 kg) of sugar, 10 pounds (5 kg) of coffee, 15 pounds (7 kg) of dried fruit, 5 pounds (2 kg) of salt, half a pound (0.25 kg) of saleratus (baking soda), 2 pounds (1 kg) of tea, 5 pounds (2 kg) of rice, and 15 pounds (7 kg) of beans. This material was usually kept in a water tight containers or barrels to minimize spoilage. The "usual" meal for breakfast, lunch and dinner along the trail was bacon, beans and biscuits or bread^[28]. The typical cost of enough food for four for six months was about $150.00. ^[29]

The amount of food required was lessened if beef cattle, calves or sheep were taken along for a walking food supply. Nearly all travelers prior to the 1870s run into vast herds of buffalo in the early part of the trip in Nebraska some of which were typically killed and used for fresh meat. Often several buffalo were killed and jerked into dried meat that could be kept without spoiling. In general wild game could not be depended on for a regular source of food but when found it was relished as a welcome change in a very monotonous diet. Travelers could hunt antelope, buffalo, sage hens, trout, and occasionally elk, bear, duck, geese and deer along the trail. Most travelers carried a rifle or shotgun and spare powder, lead and primers for hunting game and protection against Indian attacks. When they got to the Snake River and Columbia River areas they would often trade with the Indians for salmon--a welcome change. The Indians in Oregon often traded potatoes and other vegetables they had learned to grow from the missionaries. Some families took along milk cows, goats, and chickens (penned in crates tied to the wagons). Additional food like pickles, canned butter, cheese or pickled eggs were occasionally carried, but canned goods were expensive and food preservation was primitive, so few items could be safely kept for the duration of the trip.

Cooking along the trail was typically done over a campfire dug into the ground and made of wood, buffalo 'chips', willow or sage brush. Flint and steel were used to start fires. Some carried matches in water tight containers to help start fires. Fire was typically 'borrowed; from a neighbor for ease of starting. Cooking typically required simple cooking utensils such as butcher knives, large spoons, spatulas, ladles, Dutch ovens, pots and pans, grills, spits and coffee pots. Some brought small stoves, but these were often jettisoned along the way as too heavy and unnecessary. Buckets were brought for carrying water, and most travelers carried canteens and/or water bags for daily use. At least one water barrel was brought, but it was usually nearly empty to minimize weight (some water in it prevented it from drying out and losing its water tightness); it was only filled for long waterless stretches. Shovels, picks, saws, hammers, axes and hatchets were used to clear the path, build a raft or bridge, or make repairs where necessary.

Tobacco was popular, both for personal use and for trading with Indians. Each person brought at least two changes of clothes and multiple pairs of boots (two to three pair were often wore out on a trip). About 25 pounds of soap was recommended for a party of four for washing yourself and your clothes. Wash days typically only occurred once or twice a month or less when a good place to stop with good grass, water and 'wood' were found. Most wagons carried tents for sleeping, though in good weather most would sleep outside of the tent and wagon. A thin fold up mattress, blankets, pillows, canvas or gutta percha ground covers were used for sleeping at night. Sometimes an unfolded mattress was brought for the wagon if there were pregnant women or very young children along. The wagons had no springs, and the ride along the trail was very rough. Despite modern depictions, almost nobody actually rode in the wagons; it was too dusty, too rough and hard on the livestock.

Travelers also brought personal items such as Bibles, trail guides, and writing quills, ink and paper for recording a diary (about one in 200 initially kept a diary) or writing a letter.

Belt and folding knives were carried by nearly all men and boys. Awls, scissors, pins, needles and thread to repair clothes, shoes, harnesses, equipment and occasionally people were constantly in use. Spare leather used for repairs was often needed and used. Goggles to keep dust out of eyes were used by some. Boxes or baskets (often preferred by seasoned travelers as being lighter) to hold items in and canvas to cover them.

Saddles, bridles, hobbles, ropes etc. were needed if you had a horse or riding mule and most men did. Extra harness parts. Steel shoes for oxen, mules or horses. Tar was often carried to help 'repair' an injured ox's hoof.

Tools of your profession whether blacksmith, carpenter, farmer etc. were carried by nearly all.

Goods, supplies and equipment were often shared by fellow travelers^[30]. Other goods that were forgotten, broken or wore out could often be bought from a fellow traveler, post or fort along the way. New iron shoes for horses mules and oxen were often put on by blacksmiths found along the way. Equipment repairs and other goods could often be procured from blacksmith shops established at some forts and some ferries along the way. Emergency supplies, repairs and livestock were often provided by local residents in Oregon, California and Utah for late travelers on the trail who were hurrying to beat the snow and had run out of supplies, broken down or needed fresh animals.

Along the way, non-essential items were often abandoned to lighten the load, or in case of emergency. Many travelers would salvage discarded items, picking up essentials or trading lower quality items with better ones found along the road. Others would use discarded wagons, wheels and furniture as firewood. During the 1849 gold rush, Fort Laramie was known as "Camp Sacrifice" due to the large amounts merchandise discarded nearby^[30]. Travelers had pushed along the relatively easy path to Fort Laramie with their 'luxury' items but discarded them before the difficult mountain crossing ahead and after discovering that many items could be purchased at the forts or located for free along the way.

The cost of going to Oregon or California over the Oregon trail varied from nothing to a few hundred dollars per person. Women seldom went alone outside of family groups. The cheapest way was to hire on to help drive the wagons or herds. You then could then make the trip for nothing or even make a few dollars. If you had capital and ambition one could buy livestock in the mid-west, put together an outfit and drive their stock to California or Oregon and made money on the trip. If an emigrant started out as a farmer, and about 60% were, you probably already had a wagon, team of oxen or mules and many of the other supplies needed and you could make the trip for probably less than $50.00 per person additional for food plus a few miscellaneous items. If you had to buy the whole long list of needed items the cost would probably go up to $150.00-$200.00 per person.^[31]

[edit] Statistics

Oregon Trail Statistics ^[32]

Year	Oregon	California	Utah	Total
1834-39	20	-	-	20
1840	13	-	-	13
1841	24	34	-	58
1842	125	-	-	125
1843	875	38	-	913
1844	1,475	53	-	1,528
1845	2,500	260	-	2,760
1846	1,200	1,500	-	2,700
1847	4,000	450	2,200	6,650
1848	1,300	400	2,400	4,100
Tot to '49	11,512	2,735	4,600	18,847
1849	450	25,000	1,500	26,950
1850	6,000	44,000	2,500	52,500
1851	3,600	1,100	1,500	6,200
1852	10,000	50,000	10,000	70,000
1853	7,500	20,000	8,000	35,500
1854	6,000	12,000	3,200	21,200
1855	500	1,500	4,700	6,700
1856	1,000	8,000	2,400	11,400
1857	1,500	4,000	1,300	6,800
1858	1,500	6,000	150	7,650
1859	2,000	17,000	1,400	20,400
1860	1,500	9,000	1,600	12,100
Total	53,000	200,300	43,000	296,300
1834-60	Oregon	California	Utah	Total

Immigration to Oregon Territory increased dramatically between 1840 and 1852. According to Oregon Trail Statistics by William E. Hill, the figures rocketed from 13 in 1840 to 1,475 four years later, nearly doubled the following year, and hit 4,000 in 1847. Emigration declined considerably in 1851 but rose to a record 10,000 immigrants in 1852. That same year also saw the highest number of emigrants to all of the destination states. Emigration to California spiked considerably due to the 1849 gold rush. Following the discovery of gold, California remained the destination of choice for most emigrants on the trail, with almost 200,000 people traveling there between 1849 and 1860.

Though the numbers appear significant in the context of the times, far more people chose to remain at home in the 31 states. Between 1840 and 1860, the population of the United States rose by 14 million, yet only about 300,000 decided to make the trip. Many were discouraged by the effort and danger of the route. Western scout Kit Carson reputedly said, "The cowards never started and the weak died on the way." According to some sources, up to one tenth of the emigrants perished on the way^[33].

[edit] Legacy

The western expansion and the Oregon Trail in particular inspired many songs that told of the settlers' experiences. "Uncle Sam's Farm," encouraged east-coast dwellers to "Come right away. Our lands they are broad enough, so don't be alarmed. Uncle Sam is rich enough to give us all a farm." In "Western Country," the singer exhorts that "if I had no horse at all, I'd still be a hauling, far across those Rocky Mountains, goin' away to Oregon."

When purchasing a new vehicle from 1995-1998, Oregonians could purchase special commemorative Oregon Trail license plates for their cars for an added fee.^[34]

[edit] Video games

The story of the Oregon Trail inspired a popular educational computer game of the same name, The Oregon Trail. The game became widely popular in the 1980s and early 1990s and although it was originally made to be educational, children played it as a recreational game as well. Several sequels to the game were also released, such as The Oregon Trail II, The Yukon Trail and The Amazon Trail.

The game resurfaced in 2008 when Gameloft created an updated version for cell phones.^[35]

[edit] TV show

The Oregon Trail was briefly made into a television series that ran from September 21, 1977 - October 26, 1977 on NBC. The show starred Tony Becker, Darleen Carr, Charles Napier, Rod Taylor and Ken Swofford. Although it was canceled after 6 episodes, the remaining episodes were still aired on BBC 2 in the U.K. ^[36]

[edit] See also

• Kansas Territory (1854-1861)
• Nebraska Territory (1854-1867)
• The Oregon Trail: Sketches of Prairie and Rocky-Mountain Life (1847) by Francis Parkman
• Landmarks of the Nebraska Territory

[edit] Further reading

• Crawford, Medorem (1897) (DJVU). Journal of Medorem Crawford: an account of his trip across the plains with the Oregon pioneers of 1842. Star Job Office. OCLC 5001642. http://www.secstate.wa.gov/history/publications_detail.aspx?p=11.