Psychological abuse

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Psychological abuse, also referred to as emotional abuse, is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another to behavior that is psychologically harmful. Such abuse is often associated with situations of power imbalance, such as abusive relationships, bullying, child abuse and in the workplace.

Contents 1 Definitions 2 Pathology 2.1 Prevalence 2.1.1 Emotional abuse and intimate relationships 2.1.2 In the workplace 2.2 Characteristics of abusers 2.3 Effects and Sequeale of emotional abuse 2.4 Popular and clinical perception of emotional abuse 2.5 Feminist perspectives 3 Braiker's methods of manipulative control 4 Bancroft's common myths about domestic abusers 5 See also 6 References

[edit] Definitions

As of 1996^[1], there were "no consensus views about the definition of emotional abuse.” As such, clinicians and researchers have offered sometimes divergent definitions of emotional abuse. However, the widely-used Conflict Tactics Scale measures roughly 20 distinct acts of "psychological aggression" in three different categories: Verbal aggression (e.g.,“Your partner has said something to upset/annoy you”); dominant behaviors (e.g., “I have tried to prevent my partner from seeing/speaking to their family”); and jealous behaviors (e.g., “Your partner has accused you of maintaining other parallel relations.”).

The U.S. Department of Justice^[2] defines emotionally abusive traits as including causing fear by intimidation; threatening physical harm to self, partner, children, or partner's family or friends; destruction of pets and property; forcing isolation from family, friends, or school or work.

Subtler emotionally abusive tactics include insults, putdowns, arbitrary and unpredictable inconsistency, and Gaslighting (the denial that previous abusive incidents occurred). Modern technology has led to new forms of abuse, by text messaging and online cyber-bullying.

[edit] Pathology

[edit] Prevalence

[edit] Emotional abuse and intimate relationships

Domestic abuse -- defined as chronic mistreatment in marriage, dating and other intimate relationships—can include emotionally abusive behavior. Psychological abuse does not always lead to physical abuse, but physical abuse in domestic relationships is nearly always preceded and accompanied by psychological abuse.^[3]

A 2007 study of Spanish college students (n = 1,886) aged 18–27 ^[4] found that psychological aggression (as measured by the Conflict Tactics Scale) is so pervasive in dating relationships that it can be regarded as a normalized element of dating. Additionally, this study found that women exhibit substantially higher overall rates of psychological aggression than men. Strauss et al. ^[5] found that female intimate partners in heterosexual relationships were more likely than males to use psychological aggression, including threats to hit or throw an object. A study of young adults (N = 721) by Giordano et al. ^[6] found that females in intimate heterosexual relationships were more likely than males to threaten to use a knife or gun against their partner. Dutton^[7] reported that lesbian relationships had higher overall rates of interpersonal aggression (including psychological aggression) than heterosexual or gay male relationships.

Basile^[8] found that psychological aggression was effectively bidirectional in cases where couples went to court for domestic disturbances; the findings applied to both heterosexual and homosexual couples.

Domestic violence victims will often blame their own behavior, rather than the violent actions of the abuser. Victims may try continually to alter their behavior and circumstances in order to please the abuser ^[9]

[edit] In the workplace

Rates of reported emotional abuse in the workplace vary, with studies showing 10%^[10] 24%^[11] and 36%^[12] of respondents indicating persistent and substantial emotional abuse from coworkers.

Keashly and Jagatic^[13] found that males and females commit “emotionally abusive behaviors” in the workplace at roughly similar rates. In a web-based survey, Namie^[14] found that women were more likely to engage in workplace bullying, such as name-calling, and that the average length of abuse was 16.5 months

[edit] Characteristics of abusers

In their review of data from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study (a longitudinal birth cohort study; n = 941) Moffitt et al.^[15] report that sex is not a reliable predictor of interpersonal aggression, including psychological aggression. The study found that whether male or female, aggressive people share a cluster of traits, including high rates of suspicion and jealousy; sudden and drastic mood swings; poor self-control; and higher than average rates of approval of violence and aggression. Moffitt et al. also argue that antisocial men exhibit two distinct types of interpersonal aggressive (one against strangers, the other against intimate female partners), while antisocial women are rarely aggressive against anyone other than intimate male partners.

Abusers may aim to avoid household chores or exercise total control of family finances. Abusers can be very manipulative, often recruiting friends, law officers and court officials, even the victim's family to their side, while shifting blame to the victim.^[16][17]

[edit] Effects and Sequeale of emotional abuse

Namie's study^[18] of workplace emotional abuse found that 31% of women and 21% of men who reported workplace emotional abuse exhibited three key symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (hypervigilance, intrusive imagery, and avoidance behaviors). A 1998 study of male college students (n = 70) by Simonelli & Ingram^[19] found that men who were emotionally abused by their female partners exhibited higher rates of chronic depression than the general population.

Jacobson et al.^[20] found that women report markedly higher rates of fear during marital conflicts. However, a rejoinder^[21] argued that Jacobson's results were invalid due to men and women's drastically differing interpretations of questionnaires. Coker et. al^[22] found that the effects of mental abuse were similar whether the victim was male or female. Pimlott-Kubiak and Cortina^[23] found that severity and duration of abuse were the only accurate predictors of aftereffects of abuse; sex of perpetrator or victim were not reliable predictors.

Analysis of large survey (N = 25,876) by LaRoche^[24] found that women abused by men were slightly more likely to seek psychological help than were men abused by women (63% vs. 62%).

[edit] Popular and clinical perception of emotional abuse

Several studies found double-standards in how people tend to view emotional abuse by men versus emotional abuse by women. Follingstad et al. ^[25] found that, when rating hypothetical vignettes of psychological abuse in marriages, professional psychologists (N = 449, 56% male) tend to rate male abuse of females as more serious than identical scenarios describing female abuse of males: "the stereotypical association between physical aggression and males appears to extend to an association of psychological abuse and males" (Follingstad et al., p. 446)

Similarly, Sorenson and Taylor^[26] randomly surveyed a group of Los Angeles, California residents (N = 3,769) for their opinions of hypothetical vignettes of abuse in heterosexual relationships. Their study found that abuse committed by women, including emotional and psychological abuse such as controlling or humiliating behavior, was typically viewed as less serious or detrimental than identical abuse committed by men. Additionally, Sorenson and Taylor found that respondents had a broader range of opinions about female perpetrators, representing a lack of clearly-defined mores when compared to responses about male perpetrators.

A 2005 study by Hamel^[27] "[M]en and women physically and emotionally abuse each other at equal rates." Hamel's 2007 study^[28] found that "prevailing patriarchal conception of intimate partner violence" led to a systematic reluctance to study women who psychologically and physically abuse their male partners.

Dutton ^[29] found that men who are emotionally or physically abused often encounter victim blaming that erroneously presumes the man either provoked or deserved the mistreatment of their female partners.

[edit] Feminist perspectives

Feminist scholars^{[citation needed]} argue that hundreds or thousands of years of male dominated societies have created negative attitudes towards women among many men, leading boys to grow up with a deeply engrained sense of entitlement that women will do all the work of looking after them, even if the woman is also going out to work. While some women are aggressive and dominating to male partners the majority of abuse in heterosexual partnerships, at about 80% in the USA, is by men.^[30] (Note that critics^[31] have disputed the accuracy and methodology of this Department of Justice study, arguing that men and women tend to commit emotional and physical abuse in roughly equal rates.) About ten percent of recorded violence in the UK is by females against males.^[32]

Fundamentalist views of religions which have developed in male-dominated cultures tend to reinforce these attitudes. All the major world religions historically taught the dominance of men over women. Thus the book of Genesis states "in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children: and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee." Such ancient texts provide men with justifications for abusing female partners. Fundamentalist religious prohibitions against divorce make it more difficult for religious women to leave an abusive marriage: A 1980s survey of Methodist clergy found that 21% of them agreed that no amount of abuse would justify a woman's leaving her husband.^[33]

Many older and some not so old children's stories contain gender stereotyping, and music videos and computer games for children and teenagers have been criticised for continuing to portray men as aggressive and in control, while the females are there only for their sexual allure; women are portrayed as wanting to be chased and caught when they run away.^[16]

Legal systems have in the past endorsed these traditions of male domination and it is only in recent years that abusers have begun to be punished for their behaviour.^[16]

[edit] Braiker's methods of manipulative control

Harriet Braiker identifies five “fundamental training methods" of emotional abuse. But it is unclear if her concept can be regarded as clinically authoritative, supported by peer-reviewed studies or how widely-recognized her work may be.

1. Positive reinforcement

Carrying on the desired behaviour brings rewards which may be in the form of praise, money, gifts, attention, approval or smiles. This is not bad in itself and is widely used in life and education. In abusive relationships, however, such positive reinforcement serves to lure a victim into a relationship, being used more in the early stages, and keep them from leaving when used in the cycle of abuse. Abusers themselves receive positive reinforcement for their behaviour through the benefits obtained by their behaviour.^[34]

1. 'Negative reinforcement

In negative reinforcement, also called aversive conditioning, unpleasant behaviour by the manipulator ceases when the victim complies. Such behaviours include nagging, whining, crying, playing the victim and blaming others. This tends to cause anger, resentment and frustration in the victim and can lead to a downward spiral anxiety, depression and low self-esteem.^[34]

1. Intermittent or partial reinforcement

Positive reinforcement occurring on an intermittent basis tends to lead to addiction to a relationship, where the positive feedback is akin to the irregular payoff at a slot machine. Unpredictable patterns of aggressive behaviour, as by an aggressive manager at work, cause anxiety and keep victims striving to please.^[34]

1. Punishment

Punishment applied following failure of the victim to comply with the manipulator's wishes.

1. Traumatic one-trial learning

A single extremely frightening experience can have long-term effects on the victim, creating long-term fear and anxiety. In abusive relationships, fits of violent rage, sometimes including physical assault, can leave the victim too frightened and disorientated to leave the relationship or stand up for themselves.^[34]

[edit] Bancroft's common myths about domestic abusers

Bancroft identifies several “myths” about emotional abuse. Bancroft is an experienced abuser programme therapist but it is unclear if his concepts can be regarded as clinically authoritative, supported by peer-reviewed studies or how widely-recognized his work may be. Loss of control Abusers may blame the victim's actions for causing them to lose control of their temper. But in fact their anger can be carefully controlled, such as destroying only their partner's possessions and not their own, and quickly altering their demeanor upon the arrival of witnesses or police. At this point the abuser, who is calm, will often pass the blame to the victim, who is likely to be visibly disturbed.^[16]

Too much anger causes abuse Abuse therapists find that anger is usually only one of many abusive tactics employed against a victim. Anger results from abusive attitudes and the abuser's sense of entitlement rather than being a cause of these. Anger management courses are unlikely to stop abuse because they do not address the abuser's attitudes.^[16]

Mental illness Some abusers do have personality disorders such as Borderline Personality Disorder or psychopathy, but most abusers are mentally normal. It is their attitudes, absorbed from society or their family background, that make them abusively seek power over their partner or child.^[16]

Low self-esteem Abusers are found in all walks of life and many of them are successful and confident. They include heads of corporations, high ranking police officers and judges. Boosting abusers' egos may increase their sense of entitlement and lead to worse abuse.^[16]

Alcohol or drug abuse cause abuse Many substance abusers do not abuse their partners. However, those who do usually continue or even intensify psychological abuse if they give up the substance abuse. Having used the substance abuse as an excuse for their behaviour before, they are likely to change to using the stress of staying away from the substance as the excuse.^[16]

[edit] See also

• Domestic violence
• Elder abuse
• Harassment
• Poisonous pedagogy
• Psychological trauma

[edit] References

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