Churches of Christ

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Churches of Christ are autonomous Christian congregations associated with one another through common beliefs and practices. They seek to base doctrine and practice on the Bible alone, and see themselves as restoring the New Testament church established by Christ.

Historically, Churches of Christ in the United States were recognized as a distinct movement by the U.S. Religious Census of 1906. Prior to that they had been reported in the religious census as part of the movement that had its roots in the Second Great Awakening under the leadership of Thomas and Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and Barton W. Stone. Those leaders had declared their independence from their Presbyterian roots, seeking a fresh start to restore the New Testament church, and abandoning creeds. The names Church of Christ, Christian Church and Disciples of Christ were adopted by the movement because they believed these terms to be biblical.

A split occurred between those who used musical instruments in worship (now usually known as Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ and Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)) and those who chose to sing "a cappella" because the use of instruments is not mentioned in the New Testament. It is this latter branch which is the subject of this article. Though officially recognized as distinct movements from 1906, the actual separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Churches had already been taking place gradually for decades.

[edit] Overview

Modern Churches of Christ have their historical roots in the Restoration Movement, which was a converging of Christians across denominational lines in search of a return to a hypothesized original, "pre-denominational" Christianity. Participants in this movement sought to base doctrine and practice on the Bible alone, rather than recognizing the traditional councils and denominational hierarchies that had come to define Christianity since the first century^{[citation needed]}.

Members of the Churches of Christ believe that Jesus founded only one church, that the current divisions between Christians are not God's will, and that the only basis for restoring Christian unity is the Bible.^[1] They typically prefer to be known simply as "Christians", without any further religious or denominational identification.^{[2][3][4]:213} They see themselves as recreating the New Testament church established by Christ.^{[5][6][7]:106}

[edit] Common beliefs and practices

Churches of Christ generally share these traits:^[1]

• Refusal to hold to any formalized creeds or statements of faith, preferring instead a reliance on the Bible alone for doctrine and practice^{[7]:103[8]:238,240[9]:123}
• Autonomous, congregational church organization without denominational oversight^{[8]:238[9]:124}
• Local governance^[8]:238 by a plurality of male elders^{[9]:124[10]:47-54}
• Baptism by immersion of consenting believers^{[8]:238[9]:124} for the forgiveness of sins^{[1][7]:103[9]:124}
• Weekly observance of Communion^[9]:124 on Sunday^{[7]:107[8]:238} (also referred to as the Lord's Supper or, especially in British congregations, the "breaking of bread"). All but "a very small segment" use unfermented grape juice instead of wine.^[11]:491
• Practice of a cappella singing in worship^{[8]:240[9]:125}

In keeping with their history, Churches of Christ claim the New Testament as their sole rule of faith and practice in deciding matters of doctrine and ecclesiastical structure. Although they view the Old Testament as divinely inspired^[7]:103 and historically accurate, they do not see its laws as binding under the New Covenant in Christ (unless they are repeated in the New Testament). They believe that the New Testament demonstrates how a person may become a Christian (and thus a part of the universal church of Christ) and how a church should be collectively organized and carry out its scriptural purposes.

[edit] Demographics

These churches comprise about 5,062,074 members in over 40,000 individual congregations worldwide.^[12] There are approximately 13,000 congregations in the United States.^[13]:213 Overall U.S. membership was approximately 1.8 million in 2001 and 1.9 million in 2008.^[14]:5 Estimates of the proportion of the US adult population associated with the Churches of Christ vary from 0.8% to 1.5%.^{[14]:5[15]:12,16} Roughly 1,240 congregations, with 172,000 members, are predominately African-American. 240 congregations with 10,000 members are Spanish speaking.^[13]:213 The average congregation size is approximately 100 members.^[13]:213 In 2000, the Churches of Christ were the 12th largest religious group in the U.S. based on number of members, but the 4th largest in number of congregations.^[16]

Within the U.S., the brotherhood grew by approximately 2% over the period from 1980 through 2007.^[16] Membership grew in 33 states and declined in 17. The current retention rate of young adults graduating from high school appears to be approximately 60%.^[16] The percentage of members attending services appears to be high relative to that of other Christian groups.^[16] Membership is concentrated, with 70% of the U.S. membership in 13 states.^[16] Churches of Christ had a presence in 2,429 counties, placing them fifth behind the United Methodist Church, Catholic Church, Southern Baptist Convention and Assemblies of God - but the average number of adherents per county was low at 677.^[16] The divorce rate is at 6.9%, much lower than national averages.^[16]

[edit] Name

"Church of Christ" is the most common name used by this group. In keeping with their non-denominational focus, recently some congregations have identified themselves primarily as community churches, and only secondarily as Churches of Christ.^[13]:219-220 A much earlier tradition is to identify a congregation simply as "the church" at a particular location.^[13]:220[17]

A primary motivation is the desire to use a scriptural or Biblical name - to identify the church using a name that is found in the New Testament.^{[10]:163,164[17][18][19]:7-8} One of the early slogans of the Restoration Movement, coined by Alexander Campbell, was to "[c]all Bible things by Bible names."^[20]:688 There is also a desire to avoid names that associate the church with a particular man (other than Christ) or a particular doctrine or theological point of view (e.g. Lutheran, Wesleyan, Reformed).^[3][18] This desire is based on a belief that Christ established only one church, and that the use of denominational names serves to foster division among Christians.^{[10]:23,24[17][21][22][23][24]} One slogan used to describe the ideal of unity is taken from Thomas Campbell's Declaration and Address: "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one."^[20]:688

Several alternative descriptions have been recognized as scriptural, based on their use in the New Testament: "church of God", "church of the Lord", "churches of Christ", "church of the first-born", "church of the living God, "the house of God", and "the people of God."^[17][25] While recognized as scriptural, terms such as church of God and Christian Church are avoided to avoid confusion or identification with other groups that use those designations.^[17][18][26] As a practical matter, use of a common term is seen as a way to help individual Christians find congregations with a similar approach to the scriptures.^[17][27]

There is also recognition that a scriptural name can be used in a "denominational" or "sectarian" way.^[17][18][25] The exclusive use of the term "Church of Christ" has been criticized on this basis.^[17][18][25]

Many congregations and individuals do not capitalize the word "church" in the phrases "church of Christ" and "churches of Christ."^[28]:382[29] This is based on the understanding that the term "church of Christ" is used in the New Testament as a descriptive phrase, indicating that the church belongs to Christ, rather than as a proper name.^[17]

[edit] History in America

[edit] Early Restoration Movement history

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Interior of the original meeting house at Cane Ridge, Kentucky

Although the Church of Christ traces its roots through autonomous congregations since the first century A.D., the American Restoration Movement of the 18th and 19th centuries resulted in the significant development and growth of Churches of Christ in America and elsewhere. This movement was an emergence of seekers who perpetuated ideals that have existed throughout church history regarding inspired truth over ecclesiastical tradition or dogma. The Restoration Movement largely promoted a return to the purposes of the first century churches as described in the New Testament and is considered by some historians to be part of the Second Great Awakening. One major impetus of the movement was the Kentucky Cane Ridge Revival in 1801, which resulted in many from various traditions no longer holding to their denominational ties and referring to themselves simply as "Christians" or "Disciples." Several Churches of Christ were established as a result of this revival, with some denominational congregations even dropping their traditional titles in favor of "Church of Christ", "Disciples of Christ", or "Christian Church." While ever emphasizing that the Bible is the only source to seek doctrine, an acceptance of Christians with diverse opinions was the norm in the quest for truth. "In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; in all things, love" was an oft-quoted slogan of the period.^[30] The Restoration Movement solidified as a historical phenomenon in 1832 when restorationists from two major movements championed by Barton W. Stone and Alexander Campbell merged (historians thus often refer to it as the "Stone-Campbell Movement"). Following Stone's death in 1844, Alexander Campbell served as the most influential surviving voice.

[edit] Christian Churches/Churches of Christ separation

In 1906, the U.S. Religious Census listed the Christian Churches and the Churches of Christ as separate and distinct groups for the first time.^[32]:251 This, however, was simply the recognition of a division that had been growing for years under the influence of conservatives such as Daniel Sommer, with published reports as early as 1883.^[32]:252 The most obvious distinction between the two groups was the rejection of musical instruments in the Churches of Christ. The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860 with the introduction of organs in some churches. More basic were differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church, and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship. For the Christian Churches, any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered.^[32]:242-247

In 1968, at the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ), those Christian Churches that favored cooperative mission work adopted a new "provisional design" for their work together, becoming the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).^[28]:495 Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization went their own way as the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, completing a separation that had begun decades before.^[28]:407-409 The Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ have both organizational and hermeneutic differences with the churches of Christ discussed in this article.^[4]:186 For example, they have a loosely organized convention, and they view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively.^[4]:186 Nonetheless, they are much more closely related to the churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than they are with the Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ).^[4]:186

Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with the Churches of Christ and Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.^{[4]:210[28]:383}

[edit] Racial integration

In the aftermath of the the American Civil War, congregations were sometimes integrated as white families raised black children orphaned by the war, leading to objections from offended white members who suggested blacks should attend separate church services, where available.^{[citation needed]} Although David Lipscomb and others strenuously objected to racial segregation amongst congregations, following his death, segregated churches became common, and some leaders such as Foy E. Wallace railed against racial integration.^[35] A common theme amongst segregationists was that integration would cause a scripturally-proscribed spirit of division due to the racial attitudes of some white members.^{[citation needed]} Others^[who?] maintained they were descendents of Ham, marked black by God because of Ham's sin of "uncovering his father's nakedness." Advocates of segregation could cite Paul's implicit blessing of the institution of slavery,^{[citation needed]} while advocates of integration^[which?] cited the doctrine that under Christ there is "no longer Jew nor Greek, slave nor free." (Galatians 3:28)^{[citation needed]}

Some colleges affiliated with the Churches of Christ remained segregated until the 1960s.^[36]

[edit] Separation of the International Churches of Christ

The International Churches of Christ had their roots in a "discipling" movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s.^[37]:418 This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas.^[37]:418

In 1967, Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville, Florida (later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ). That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance (based on principles borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement). Centered on the University of Florida, the program called for a strong evangelical outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and prayer partners. Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members. Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction. Both procedures led to "in-depth involvement of each member in one another's lives", and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism.^[38]

The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ. One of Lucas' converts, Kip McKean, moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with "would-be disciples" in the Lexington Church of Christ.^[37]:418 He asked them to "redefine their commitment to Christ," and introduced the use of discipling partners. The congregation grew rapidly, and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ.^[37]:418 In the early 1980s, the focus of the movement moved to Boston, Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend.

With the national leadership located in Boston, during the 1980s it commonly became known as the "Boston movement."^[37]:418 A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 with the organization of the International Churches of Christ.^[37]:418 This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads/Boston Movement and "mainline" Churches of Christ. Much of the outside literature during this period refers to it as the "Boston Movement" or occasionally the "Discipling Movement", after the practice of assigning each new church member a mentor who was to "disciple" the newer member through prayer and advice about a wide range of day-to-day decisions.

In November 2002, the McKeans announced their resignations from their roles as World Mission Evangelist, Women's Ministry Leader and Leader of the World Sector Leaders.^[39] What followed was a period of increased sovereignty among local churches, what McKean calls a "reactionary 'new vision' of autonomous congregations, consensus leadership with no lead evangelists, the elimination of structured outreach (Bible Talks) and the elimination of discipleship partners." Many in leadership positions issued public apologies for their participation in authoritative abuses, and some resigned or were asked to leave. By 2004, Boston, Atlanta, and New York had lost over 30% of their members, and some entire congregations severed their ties with the ICOC.^[40] Local fellowships varied in their reactions to the power vacuum. ICOC Chronicler Chris Lee asserts that three factions emerged, still extant today: a conservative group which seeks a return to the former, authoritarian structure; a moderate group that, "while they recognize that reform is necessary, feel that the current rate of reform is sufficient"; and a reformist group which advocates radical restructuring.^[41]

In the wake of these changes, some efforts are being made at reconciliation between the International Churches of Christ and the mainstream Churches of Christ. In March 2004, Abilene Christian University held the "Faithful Conversations" dialog between members of the Churches of Christ and International Churches of Christ. Those involved were able to apologize and initiate an environment conducive to building bridges. A few leaders of the Churches of Christ apologized for use of the word "cult" in reference to the International Churches of Christ. The International Churches of Christ leaders apologized for alienating the Churches of Christ and implying they were not Christians. Although a better atmosphere for cooperation and understanding was generated, there are still fundamental differences within the fellowship. Early 2005 saw a second set of dialogs with greater promise for both sides helping one another. Harding University is contemplating a distance learning program geared toward those ministers who were trained in the International Churches of Christ.^[42]

[edit] Restoration Movement timeline

[edit] Church organization

[edit] Congregational autonomy

Church government is congregational rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.^{[4]:214[7]:103[8]:238[9]:124[43]} Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations (see Sponsoring church (Churches of Christ)).^{[1][9]:124[44][45]} Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles.^[1][7]:106

[edit] Congregational leadership

Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders (also known in some congregations as shepherds, bishops, or pastors) who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons.^{[1][9]:124[10]:47,54-55} Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation, while deacons are seen as responsible for the non-spiritual needs of the church.^[46]:531 Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders, and are often assigned to direct specific ministries.^[46]:531 Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership.^[46]:531

Elders and deacons are appointed by the congregation based on the qualifications found in I Timothy 3 and Titus 1.^{[10]:53,48-52[47][48]:323,335} Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach, as well as to perform "governance" functions.^[49]:298 In lieu of willing men who meet these qualifications, congregations are sometimes overseen by the congregation's men in general.^[50]

While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than "located Preachers", during the 20th century a long-term, formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ.^[46]:532 Minsters are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders.^[49]:298 While the presence of a long-term professional minister has sometimes created "significant de facto ministerial authority" and led to conflict between the minister and the elders, the eldership has remained the "ultimate locus of authority in the congregation."^[46]:531

Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers.^[51] No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as "clergy."^[7]:106 Many ministers have undergraduate or graduate education in religion, or specific training in preaching through a non-college school of preaching. Churches of Christ emphasize, based on Romans 1:7 and other passages, that each member is a minister and a saint, that no believer is more important than another, and that all should use the gifts he or she has to serve others.

[edit] Variations within Churches of Christ

Since Churches of Christ are autonomous, not denominational, and purposefully do not maintain an ecclesiastical hierarchy or doctrinal council (as they hold the Bible alone as the only source of doctrine), it is not unusual to find variations from congregation to congregation. For example, some allow for more open interpretations regarding worship and other church practices, while others hold to more strict interpretations. The level of fellowship and cooperation that will exist between those of varying opinions will depend on each member and local congregation. Congregations and members are free to study the scriptures and to the best of their abilities ascertain God's revealed will. Yet, most Churches of Christ have the similarities mentioned in the introduction.

The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on "methods and procedures" such as church organization, the form of worship, and how the church should function. As a result, most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of "methodological" disputes. These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of "restoring the form and structure of the primitive church."^[4]:212

Three quarters of the congregations and 87% of the membership are described by the The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement as "mainstream", sharing a consensus on practice and theology.^[13]:213 The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories, the largest of which is the churches of Christ (non-institutional). Approximately 2,055 congregations fall in this category.^[52][13]:213 The second group does not use separate Bible classes, and consists of approximately 1,100 congregations. A third group does not use multiple communion cups (approximately 550 congregations; this category overlaps somewhat with those congregations that do not use separate Bible classes for children). The fourth group "emphasize[s] mutual edification by various leaders in the churches and oppose[s] one person doing most of the preaching." This group includes roughly 130 congregations.^[52][13]:213 These groups generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices, rather than in theological perspectives, and tend to have smaller congregations on average.^[13]:213

[edit] Hermeneutics

Churches of Christ seek to practice the principle of the Bible being the only source to find doctrine (also known as "sola scriptura").^[9]:123[53] The Bible is generally regarded as inspired and inerrant.^[9]:123 Churches of Christ generally see the Bible as historically accurate and literal, unless scriptural context obviously indicates otherwise. Regarding church practices, worship, and doctrine, there is great liberty from congregation to congregation in interpreting what is biblically permissible, as congregations are not controlled by a denominational hierarchy.^[54] Their approach to the Bible is driven by the "assumption that the Bible is sufficiently plain and simple to render its message obvious to any sincere believer."^[4]:212 Related to this is an assumption that the Bible provides an understandable "blueprint or constitution" for the church.^[4]:213

Historically, three hermeneutic approaches have been used among Churches of Christ.^[55][56]:387

• Analysis of commands, examples, and necessary inferences;
• Dispensational analysis distinguishing between Patriarchal, Mosaic and Christian dispensations; and
• Grammatico-historical analysis.

The relative importance given to each of these three strategies has varied over time and between different contexts.^[55] The general impression in the current Churches of Christ is that the group's hermeneutics are entirely based on the command, example, inference approach.^[55] In practice, interpretation has been deductive, and heavily influenced by the group's central commitment to ecclesiology and soteriology.^[55] Inductive reasoning has been used as well, as when all of the conversion accounts from the book of Acts are collated and analyzed to determine the steps necessary for salvation.^[55] One student of the movement summarized the traditional approach this way: "In most of their theologizing, however, my impression is that spokespersons in the Churches of Christ reason from Scripture in a deductive manner, arguing from one premise or hypothesis to another so as to arrive at a conclusion. In this regard the approach is much like that of science which, in practice moves deductively from one hypothesis to another, rather than in a Baconian inductive manner."^[55] In recent years, changes in the degree of emphasis placed on ecclesiology and soteriology has spurred a reexamination of the traditional hermeneutics among some associated with the Churches of Christ.^[55]

A debate arose during the 1980s over the use of the command, example, necessary inference model for identifying the "essentials" of the New Testament faith. Some argued that it fostered legalism, and advocated a hermeneutic based on the character of God, Christ and the Holy Spirit. Traditionalists urged the rejection of this "new hermeneutic."^[57] Use of this tripartite formula has declined as congregations have shifted to an increased "focus on 'spiritual' issues like discipleship, servanthood, family and praise."^[56]:388 Relatively greater emphasis has been given to Old Testament studies in congregational Bible classes and at affiliated colleges in recent decades. While it is still not seen as authoritative for Christian worship, church organization or regulating the Christian's life, some have argued that it is theologically authoritative. ^[56]:388

Many scholars associated with the Churches of Christ embrace the methods of modern Biblical criticism, but not the associated anti-supernaturalistic views. More generally, the classical grammatico-historical method is prevalent, which provides a basis for some openness to alternative approaches to understanding the scriptures.^[56]:389

[edit] Doctrine of Salvation (Soteriology)

Churches of Christ are strongly anti-Calvinist in their understanding of salvation, and generally present conversion as "obedience to the proclaimed facts of the gospel rather than as the result of an emotional, Spirit-initiated conversion."^[13]:215

Churches of Christ hold the view that humans of accountable age are lost because of their sins.^[9]:124 These lost souls can be redeemed because Jesus Christ, the Son of God, offered Himself as the atoning sacrifice.^[9]:124 Children too young to understand right from wrong, and make a conscious choice between the two, are believed to be innocent of sin.^{[7]:107[9]:124} The age when this occurs is generally believed to be around 13.^[7]:107

Churches of Christ generally teach that the process of salvation involves the following steps:^[1]

1. One must be properly taught, and hear (Rm 10:17, Matt. 7:24),
2. One must believe or have faith (Heb 11:6, Mk 16:15-16),
3. One must repent, which means turning from one's former lifestyle and choosing God's ways (Acts 2:38, 17:30, Luke 13:3),
4. One must confess belief that Jesus is the son of God (Matthew 10:32-33; Acts 8:36-37),
5. One must be baptized for the remission of sins (Acts 2:38; I Pet 3:20-21; Romans 6:3-5; Mark 16:16; Acts 22:16),
6. One must remain faithful unto death (Rev. 2:10).

Beginning in the 1960s, many preachers began placing more emphasis on the role of grace in salvation, instead of focusing exclusively implementing all of the New Testament commands and examples.^[58]:152,153 This was not an entirely new approach, as others had actively "affirmed a theology of free and unmerited grace," but it did represent a change of emphasis with grace becoming "a theme that would increasingly define this tradition."^[58]:153

[edit] Baptism

Baptism has been recognized as an important rite throughout the history of the Christian Church.^[59]:11 However, Christian groups differ over the manner in which baptism is administered,^[59]:11 the meaning and significance of baptism,^[59]:11 its role in salvation,^[59]:12 and who is a candidate for baptism.^[59]:12

Baptism in Churches of Christ is performed only by bodily immersion,^{[7]:107[9]:124} based on the Koine Greek verb baptizo which is understood to mean to dip, immerse, submerge or plunge.^{[1][10]:313-314[59]:139[60]:22} Immersion is seen as more closely conforming to the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus than other modes of baptism.^{[1][10]:314-316[59]:140} Churches of Christ argue that historically immersion was the mode used in the first century, and that pouring and sprinkling later emerged as secondary modes when immersion was not possible.^[59]:140 Over time these secondary modes came to replace immersion.^[59]:140 Only those mentally capable of belief and repentance are baptized (i.e., infant baptism is not practiced because the New Testament has no precedent for it).^{[1][9]:124[10]:318-319[48]:195}

Churches of Christ have historically had the most conservative position on baptism among the various branches of the Restoration Movement, understanding baptism by immersion to be a necessary part of conversion.^[61]:61 The most significant disagreements concerned the extent to which a correct understanding of the role of baptism is necessary for its validity.^[61]:61 David Lipscomb insisted that if a believer was baptized out of a desire to obey God, the baptism was valid, even if the individual did not fully understand the role baptism plays in salvation.^[61]:61 Austin McGary contended that to be valid, the convert must also understand that baptism is for the forgiveness of sins.^[61]:62 McGary's view became the prevailing one in the early 20th century, but the approach advocated by Lipscomb never totally disappeared.^[61]:62 More recently, the rise of the International Churches of Christ (who insisted on re-baptising anyone joining their movement) has caused some to reexamine the issue.^[61]:66

Churches of Christ consistently teach that in baptism a believer surrenders his life in faith and obedience to God, and that God "by the merits of Christ's blood, cleanses one from sin and truly changes the state of the person from an alien to a citizen of God's kingdom. Baptism is not a human work; it is the place where God does the work that only God can do."^[61]:66 Baptism is a passive act of faith rather than a meritorious work; it "is a confession that a person has nothing to offer God."^[62]:112 While Churches of Christ do not describe baptism as a "sacrament", their view of it can legitimately be described as "sacramental."^{[60]:186[61]:66} They see the power of baptism coming from God, who chose to use baptism as a vehicle, rather than from the water or the act itself,^[60]:186 and understand baptism to be an integral part of the conversion process, rather than just a symbol of conversion.^[60]:184 A recent trend is to emphasize the transformational aspect of baptism: instead of describing it as just a legal requirement or sign of something that happened in the past, it is seen as "the event that places the believer 'into Christ' where God does the ongoing work of transformation."^[61]:66 There is a minority that downplays the importance of baptism in order to avoid sectarianism, but the broader trend is to "reexamine the richness of the biblical teaching of baptism and to reinforce its central and essential place in Christianity."^[61]:66

Because of the belief that baptism is a necessary part of salvation, some Baptists hold that the Churches of Christ endorse the doctrine of baptismal regeneration.^[63] However, members of the Churches of Christ reject this, arguing that since faith and repentance are necessary, and that the cleansing of sins is by the blood of Christ through the grace of God, baptism is not an inherently redeeming ritual.^{[59]:133[63][64]:630,631} One author describes the relationship between faith and baptism this way, "Faith is the reason why a person is a child of God; baptism is the time at which one is incorporated into Christ and so becomes a child of God" (italics are in the source).^[48]:170 Baptism is understood as a confessional expression of faith and repentance,^[48]:179-182 rather than a "work" that earns salvation.^[48]:170

[edit] Non-instrumental worship

The Churches of Christ generally combine the lack of any historical evidence that first century churches used instruments in worship, ^[65] and the belief that there is no scriptural support for using instruments in the church's worship service^{[1][10]:244-246} to decide that instruments should not be used today in worship. Churches of Christ have historically practiced a cappella music in worship services.^{[1][8]:240[9]:124}

Scriptural backing for this practice given by members includes:

• Matt. 26:30: "And when they had sung a hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives"^[10]:236
• Rom. 15:9: "Therefore I will praise thee among the Gentiles, and sing to thy name"^[10]:236
• Eph. 5:18,19: "... be filled with the Spirit, addressing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody to the Lord with all your heart"^[1][10]:236
• I Cor. 14:15: "I will sing with the Spirit, and I will sing with the understanding also."^[10]:236
• Col. 3:16: "Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly; in all wisdom teaching and admonishing one another with psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing with grace in your hearts unto God."^[10]:237
• Heb. 2:12: "I will declare thy name unto my brethren, in the midst of the church will I sing praise unto thee"^[10]:237

There are congregations that do permit hand-clapping and musical instruments.^{[8]:240[66][67]:417} This is not a formal distinction; church members simply refer to congregations as "instrumental" or "non-instrumental."

[edit] Other theological tendencies

Many leaders argue that the Churches of Christ simply follow the Bible, and have no "theology."^[68]:737 Theology as classically understood - the systematic development of the classical doctrinal topics - is relatively recent and rare among this movement.^[68]:737 Because Churches of Christ reject all formalized creeds on the basis that they add to or detract from Scripture, they generally reject most conceptual doctrinal positions out of hand.^[69] Churches of Christ do tend to elaborate certain "driving motifs."^[68]:737 These are scripture (hermeneutics), the church (ecclesiology) and the "plan of salvation" (soteriology).^[68]:737

Concepts like Original Sin, Total Depravity, Predestination, and others are thought to be "doctrinal innovations" that remove the focus from plain interpretation of Scripture.^{[citation needed]} Some examples:

Election and predestination are regarded as functions of the exercise of free will (i.e., God has chosen and wishes for all to be saved but only those who choose to believe and submit to Him will be). Those who choose God's way through Christ are elect and therefore saved while those who reject Christ are lost in sin. Despite the similarity of this position to Arminian theology, Churches of Christ generally view it as being directly evident within Scripture rather than being a derived theological doctrine.^{[citation needed]}

The idea "once saved always saved" is also rejected. As generally understood in Churches of Christ, a Christian can consciously decide to cease following Christ and thus lose salvation, or "fall from grace" (2 Peter 2:20-22).^{[citation needed]}

The importance of theology, understood as teaching or "doctrine", has been defended on the basis that an understanding of doctrine is necessary to respond intelligently to questions from others, to promote spiritual health, and to draw the believer closer to God.^[62]:10-11

[edit] Eschatology

Regarding eschatology (a branch of theology concerned with the final events in the history of the world or of humankind), Churches of Christ are generally amillennial, their originally prevalent postmillennialism (evident in Alexander Campbell's Millennial Harbinger) having dissipated around the era of the First World War. Before then, many leaders were "moderate historical premillennialists" who did not, however, advocate specific historical interpretations. Churches of Christ have moved away from premillennialism as dispensational millennialism has come more to fore in Protestant evangelical circles.^[13]:219[70] Amillennialism and postmillennialism are the prevailing views today.^[9]:125[71]

[edit] Work of the Holy Spirit

During the late 19th century, the prevailing view in the Restoration Movement was that the Holy Spirit currently acts only through the influence of inspired scripture.^[72] This rationalist view was associated with Alexander Campbell, who was "greatly affected by what he viewed as the excesses of the emotional camp meetings and revivals of his day."^[72] He believed that the Spirit draws people towards salvation, but understood the Spirit to do this "in the same way any person moves another—by persuasion with words and ideas." This view came to prevail over that of Barton W. Stone, who believed the Spirit had a more direct role in the life of the Christian.^[72] Since the early 20th century, many among the Churches of Christ have moved away from this "word-only" theory of the operation of the Holy Spirit.^[73] As one student of the movement puts it, "[f]or better or worse, those who champion the so-called word-only theory no longer have a hold on the minds of the constituency of Churches of Christ. Though relatively few have adopted outright charismatic and third wave views and remained in the body, apparently the spiritual waves have begun to erode that rational rock."^[72]

[edit] Churches of Christ outside the United States

Most members of the Churches of Christ live outside the United States. There are more than 1,000,000 members of the Churches of Christ in Africa, approximately 1,000,000 in India, and 50,000 in Central and South America. Total worldwide membership is over 3,000,000, with approximately 1,300,000 in the U.S.^[13]:212

[edit] Africa

There are believed to be 1,000,000 or more members of the Churches of Christ in Africa. ^[13]:212 The total number of congregations is approximately 14,000.^[74]:7 The most significant concentrations are in "Nigeria, Malawi, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia and Kenya."^[74]:7

[edit] Asia

India has historically been a target for missionary efforts; estimates are that there are 2,000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India,^[75]:37,38 with a membership of approximately 1,000,000.^[13]:212

More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines.^[75]:38 Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller, but still significant.^[75]:38

[edit] Australia & New Zealand

Historically, Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early development of the movement in Australia.^[76]:47 Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations.^[76]:47

While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive, towards the end of the nineteenth century they began viewing "summary statements of belief" as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups.^[76]:50 The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship, Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools. Ultimately, all three found general acceptance in the movement.^[76]:51

Currently, the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States.^[76]:53 There have been strong ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ instead.^[76]:53 Others have sought support from non-instrumental Churches of Christ, particularly those who felt that "conference" congregations had "departed from the restoration ideal."^[76]:53

[edit] Canada

A relatively small proportion of total membership come from Canada. A growing portion of the Canadian demographic is made up of immigrant members of the church. This is partly the result of Canadian demographics as a whole, and partly due to decreased interest amongst late generation Canadians.^[77]

[edit] Great Britain

Churches of Christ in Europe arose separately from the American Restoration Movement and during the 1840s onwards various movements came into fellowship. The Restoration Movement in the United Kingdom started before the Campbell/Stone movement in the USA. In England, Churches of Christ flourished in the 1600s and before; eventually many became Baptist. Keith Sisman's web site - Traces of the Kingdom can be consulted on early history of the Churches of Christ in Europe^[78]

A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ.^[79]:369 James Wallis, a member of that group, founded a magazine named the British Millennial Harbinger in 1837.^[79]:369 In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh.^[79]:369 Approximately 50 congregations were involved, representing a membership of 1,600.^[79]:369 The name "Churches of Christ" was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870.^[79]:369 Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings; he visited the Britain for several months in 1847, and "presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester."^[79]:369 At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2,300.^[79]:369 Annual meetings were held after 1847.^[79]:369

The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism; a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war.^[79]:371 A conference for "Old Paths" congregations was first held in 1924.^[79]:371 The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as "an all-sufficient rule of faith and practice."^[79]:371 Two "Old Paths" congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931; an additional two withdrew in 1934, and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947.^[79]:371

Membership declined rapidly after during and after the First World War.^{[79]:372[80]:312} The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980.^{[79]:372[80]:312} Most Association congregations (approximately 40) united with the United Reformed Church in 1981.^{[79]:372[80]:312} In the same year, twenty-four other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ.^[79]:372 The Fellowship developed ties with the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ during the 1980s.^{[79]:372[80]:312}

The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a "missional" emphasis with an ideal of "Five Fold Leadership." Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches. The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine. A history of the Association of Churches of Christ, Let Sects and Parties Fall, was written by David M Thompson.^[81]

[edit] See also

Christianity portal

• Restorationism
• Regulative principle of worship
• Category:Churches of Christ
• Category:Ministers of the Churches of Christ
• List of universities and colleges affiliated with the Churches of Christ
• Gospel Broadcasting Network (GBN) - a television network affiliated with the Churches of Christ
• House to House Heart to Heart - a printed outreach affiliated with the Churches of Christ

[edit] References

• Allen, Crawford Leonard (1988). Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of Churches of Christ. Abilene, Tex: ACU Press. pp. 161. ISBN 0891120084. 
• Brownlow, Leroy. (1973). Why I Am a Member of the Church of Christ. Brownlow Publishing Company, Inc.
• Cartwright, Colbert S. (1987). People of the Chalice. St, Louis, Missouri: Chalice Press. ISBN 978-0-827229-38-9. 
• Murch, James DeForest (1962). Christians Only, A history of the Restoration Movement. Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company. 
• Garrett, Leroy (1983). The Stone-Campbell Movement. Joplin: College Press. ISBN 0-89900-059-2. 
• Hughes, Richard; Hatch, Nathan O.; Harrell, David Edwin Jr. (2000). American Origins of the Churches of Christ. Abilene, TX: ACU Press. pp. 118. ISBN 0-89112-0092. 
• Hughes, Richard T (1996). Reviving the Ancient Faith: The Story of Churches of Christ in America. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. pp. 448. ISBN 0802840868. 
• Holloway, Gary; Foster, Douglas A. (2001). Renewing God's People. Abilene, TX: ACU Press. pp. 151. ISBN 0-89-112-010-6. 
• McMillon, Lynn A. (1983). Restoration Roots. Dallas: Gospel Teachers Publications, Inc.. pp. 97. 

[edit] Notes

[edit] External links

• Church of Christ Internet Ministries
• Brotherhood News – Online news source of the Churches of Christ
• The Christian Chronicle – A newspaper of the Churches of Christ.
• ChurchZip.com – Find the nearest Church of Christ anywhere